Swiss Mercenaries

Landsknecht

French Gendarmes

Pikemen

Field Artillery: Evolution of Warfare 1450-1650

After the defeat at the Battle of Seminara on 28 June 1495, King Charles VIII of France, already marching north from Naples, continued his retreat to escape the growing threat posed by the League of Venice. Despite the French victory at Seminara, the League's determination to expel Charles and his forces from Italy intensified. With Naples retaken by Ferdinand II, Charles sought to regroup in northern Italy and rejoin his ally, the Duke of Orl&eacute;ans, in Piedmont. His path, however, was blocked by the League's main army near the Taro River, where the Battle of Fornovo would unfold on 6 July 1495. The League, composed of Venetian, Milanese, and other Italian forces, had assembled under Francesco Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, and outnumbered Charles's retreating army by nearly two to one. The League aimed to destroy the French army entirely, and its troops, bolstered by Stradioti light cavalry from Albania, were well-positioned to achieve this goal. Charles's forces, meanwhile, consisted of 10,000 men, including his renowned gendarmes, Swiss mercenaries, and a formidable artillery train, though they were burdened by the spoils of the Neapolitan campaign. As Charles approached Fornovo, the League blocked his path, deploying its 20,000 men strategically along the Taro River. The battle began with Charles's artillery opening fire on the League's forces. Though the cannons had limited effect, they unnerved the League's troops, as the psychological impact of the French guns remained significant. Charles's cavalry, led by Marshal Gie, launched a powerful charge that scattered the League's initial lines, creating chaos among their forces. The disciplined Swiss mercenaries in the French ranks also proved effective in holding off counterattacks from the League's infantry and cavalry. Francesco Gonzaga's plan relied on outflanking the French and targeting their baggage train, which contained much of the wealth Charles had taken from Naples. Stradioti cavalry managed to attack and plunder portions of the train, but this distracted key elements of the League's army, weakening their ability to deliver a coordinated assault. The French capitalized on this disorder, breaking through the League's lines and escaping encirclement. While the League claimed victory for recovering some of the French loot, Charles's army successfully continued its retreat northward to Asti. The aftermath of Fornovo underscored the broader failure of Charles's Italian campaign. Although he survived the retreat and preserved his army, all of his conquests in southern Italy were lost. Naples had already fallen to Ferdinand II, whose return was facilitated by support from the Spanish fleet and widespread popular rebellion against the French occupiers. Charles's ambitions of establishing a base for a crusade against the Ottomans were dashed, and the resources expended on the campaign left France deeply in debt. For the Italians, the battle demonstrated the weaknesses of their mercenary-dominated armies, which proved unable to decisively defeat Charles despite their numerical superiority. Francesco Gonzaga's confession to his wife that the French might have destroyed the League's forces if they had chosen to turn and fight revealed the fragility of the coalition's victory. The campaign as a whole exposed Italy's vulnerabilities, with its wealth and disunity making it an irresistible target for foreign powers. Charles's invasion set a precedent for further incursions, turning the peninsula into a battleground for European powers over the following decades. Fornovo, much like Seminara, signified a shift in the nature of warfare during the Italian Wars. The effectiveness of artillery and disciplined infantry demonstrated the need for innovation in military strategy, while the inability of the League to fully eliminate Charles's army highlighted the limitations of traditional Italian military practices. For Charles, his retreat from Fornovo marked the end of his dream of Italian conquest, but for Italy, it was only the beginning of a long period of foreign domination and conflict.

Battle of Fornovo

Louis XII of France sought to break Venetian dominance over Lombardy and restore lands claimed by allies of the League of Cambrai, which included the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the Papacy. Louis XII had assembled a formidable army in Milan and began advancing into Venetian territory on 15 April 1509. To counter this, Venice raised a mercenary force under the joint command of Bartolomeo d'Alviano and Niccolo di Pitigliano, cousins from the Orsini family. Their orders from the Venetian Senate were to avoid a pitched battle, focusing instead on delaying and disrupting the French advance with skirmishes. By early May, Louis crossed the Adda River at Cassano d'Adda, forcing the Venetians to maneuver southward in search of defensible terrain. However, tensions between the two commanders grew as Alviano favored engaging the French, while Pitigliano adhered strictly to Venetian instructions. Their disagreement created a dangerous lack of cohesion in the Venetian forces. On 14 May, the Venetian army was stretched out in movement southward. Alviano's contingent of about 8,000 troops formed the rearguard near the village of Agnadello, while Pitigliano and the bulk of the Venetian army were several miles away. French forces, commanded by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio and later reinforced by Louis XII himself, spotted Alviano's isolated troops and launched an attack. Alviano chose to stand and fight, positioning his troops on a ridge near vineyards, a terrain feature that briefly gave the Venetians an advantage. The French, led by their Swiss pikemen and heavy cavalry, struggled to advance due to heavy rain that turned irrigation ditches into muddy obstacles. Alviano's defensive position held firm at first, and the Venetian cavalry launched a countercharge against the French center, temporarily stalling the French offensive. However, Pitigliano-receiving requests for reinforcements from Alviano-refused to engage, following his orders to avoid a pitched battle. As Louis XII arrived with the main body of the French army, Alviano's forces were surrounded on three sides. After several hours of intense fighting, the Venetian position collapsed. Alviano was wounded and captured, and over 4,000 Venetian soldiers were killed, including commanders Piero del Monte and Saccoccio da Spoleto. Thirty Venetian artillery pieces also fell into French hands. Pitigliano, unaware of the scale of the disaster at first, continued marching southward. When word of Alviano's defeat reached him, morale among his troops plummeted, and most of his army deserted by the next morning. With no effective force left to oppose the French, Pitigliano retreated towards Treviso and Venice. The defeat at Agnadello dealt a catastrophic blow to Venetian ambitions in northern Italy. Louis XII quickly overran Venetian territories in Lombardy, and the League of Cambrai seized much of Venice's mainland holdings. Pope Julius II and other members of the League pressured Venice further, leaving the Republic on the brink of collapse. The Battle of Agnadello was one of the most decisive engagements of the Italian Wars. As Niccolo Machiavelli observed in The Prince, it exemplified how Venice lost in a single day what it had spent 800 years building. The Republic would eventually recover portions of its territory, but the battle marked the end of Venice's preeminence in mainland Italy.

Battle of Agnadello

The campaign of Marignano in September 1515 marked a pivotal moment in the Italian Wars, as King Francis I of France sought to reassert French dominance in northern Italy after years of setbacks. The Swiss Confederacy, bolstered by their earlier victory at Novara, controlled Milan and had installed Massimiliano Sforza as duke, making the city a strategic linchpin in the region. Determined to reclaim Milan, Francis launched an audacious campaign, hauling heavy artillery over the Alps via the previously unused Col d'Argenti&egrave;re. This maneuver shocked the Swiss and their allies, who had believed such a route impassable. The French forces, supported by Venetian allies, quickly seized the initiative, capturing key figures such as Prospero Colonna and throwing the opposition into disarray. Despite the French advances, the Swiss refused to cede control of Milan entirely. Internal pisions among the Swiss forces emerged, with some seeking peace and others, spurred by the fiery rhetoric of Cardinal Matth&auml;us Schiner, pushing for battle. On September 13, a Swiss army marched out of Milan to confront the French at the village of Marignano. The terrain, dotted with vineyards and fields, became the site of a fierce and protracted engagement. The Swiss, renowned for their discipline and ferocity, launched a surprise evening attack, catching the French off guard. King Francis, donning his armor, quickly organized his forces into three pisions. The French artillery, positioned in a crescent formation, initially slowed the Swiss advance, but their relentless charges overran parts of the French line. The night became a chaotic melee as the Swiss clashed with French landsknechts, crossbowmen, and heavy cavalry. Despite heavy casualties, the French held their ground through repeated charges, many led by Francis himself and his trusted commander Bayard. The moonlit battle raged through the night, with both sides suffering devastating losses. By dawn, the armies regrouped, preparing for another day of combat. On the morning of September 14, the Swiss renewed their assault, focusing on the French center. This time, however, the French artillery was fully operational and unleashed devastating volleys into the advancing Swiss. The disciplined pike formations, though initially successful in pushing back the French infantry, were repeatedly stalled by cannon fire and cavalry charges. As the battle hung in the balance, Venetian reinforcements under Bartolomeo d&rsquo;Alviano arrived and tipped the scales. The Swiss, outnumbered and exhausted, began to retreat in a massive open square, maintaining their discipline even as they withdrew. The French emerged victorious after two days of grueling combat, with the battlefield littered with thousands of dead. Francis I, recognizing the significance of the moment, had himself knighted by Bayard in the traditional chivalric style. Milan fell to the French shortly after the battle, and Massimiliano Sforza surrendered, accepting exile and a French pension. The victory at Marignano established Francis I as a dominant force in northern Italy and demonstrated the effectiveness of French artillery and cavalry against the previously invincible Swiss pike formations. For the Swiss, the defeat marked the end of their ambitions in Milan and their role as a major military power in Europe. The subsequent Treaty of Fribourg in 1516 solidified a lasting peace between France and the Swiss Confederacy, with the Swiss retreating to their alpine strongholds and abandoning further territorial ambitions in Italy. The battle also highlighted the shifting nature of Renaissance warfare, as artillery and combined arms tactics began to eclipse the dominance of traditional infantry formations. Although Francis celebrated Marignano as his greatest triumph, the victory galvanized resistance among other European powers, setting the stage for further conflict in the Italian Wars. For the Swiss, the battle became a turning point, leading to a reevaluation of their military strategies and the beginning of their long-standing neutrality in European affairs.

Battle of Marignano

The Sack of Rome occurred on 6 May 1527 when the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, captured the city during the War of the League of Cognac. The Imperial army, consisting of approximately 14,000 German Landsknechte, 6,000 Spanish soldiers, and an uncertain number of Italian infantry, advanced towards Rome after a series of earlier skirmishes. The defenders, numbering around 5,000 militiamen led by Renzo da Ceri and 189 Papal Swiss Guards, were insufficiently prepared for the assault. The Imperial forces attacked the city’s walls at the Gianicolo and Vatican hills. During the assault, Duke Charles III of Bourbon was fatally shot, which led to a breakdown of discipline among the Imperial troops. With their leader dead, the soldiers stormed the city, overwhelming the defenders and beginning a widespread looting and pillaging spree.The Swiss Guard made a final stand in the Teutonic Cemetery, where they were nearly annihilated. Their captain, Kaspar Röist, was killed, and only a small number of survivors managed to retreat to St. Peter's Basilica. The sack resulted in the execution of approximately 1,000 defenders, and the subsequent looting devastated churches, monasteries, and the properties of cardinals. Cardinal Pompeo Colonna entered the city on 8 May, bringing with him peasants seeking revenge against the Papal forces. Despite attempts to restore order, pillaging continued unabated for three days, with Philibert of Châlon, who had taken command after Bourbon's death, struggling to control his troops. Pope Clement VII took refuge in Castel Sant'Angelo, where he remained until a ransom of 400,000 ducati was paid for his release on 6 June.The sack had catastrophic effects on Rome, with its population plummeting from around 55,000 to 10,000 due to violence, famine, and disease. The Imperial troops, too, suffered significant casualties from the aftermath of the sack, primarily due to disease. The pillaging finally ceased in February 1528, when the city’s resources were exhausted. The events of the sack not only marked a significant military victory for Charles V but also intensified the religious divide between Catholics and Protestants, as the brutality of the sack was viewed through the lens of the ongoing Reformation. The political landscape shifted, with Pope Clement VII ultimately conceding to Charles V's demands, which altered the dynamics of power within the Catholic Church.

Sack of Rome (1527)

In 1494, King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, aiming to assert his Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples. His campaign, marked by swift advances and the effective use of modern artillery, overran the disunited Italian states. By February 1495, Charles occupied Naples, forcing King Ferdinand II of Naples to flee to Sicily, where he sought aid from his Spanish cousin, Ferdinand II of Aragon. The French occupation of Naples and Charles' march back north toward France, leaving garrisons to hold southern Italy, prompted the formation of the League of Venice, a coalition of Italian states and Spain, to drive the French out. In May 1495, the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, an experienced soldier chosen by Queen Isabella of Castile, arrived in Calabria to assist Ferdinand II in reclaiming his kingdom. His forces included 600 Spanish cavalry and 1,500 infantry, along with Neapolitan troops and local militia volunteers. By June 1495, Ferdinand II and Fernandez de Cordoba advanced into Calabria, supported by Venetian naval raids along the coast. The allied forces initially achieved small successes, destroying a French detachment and retaking towns like Reggio and Seminara. However, the French garrison in the region, commanded by Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny, quickly mobilized. Though ill with malaria, d'Aubigny consolidated his forces, calling reinforcements from scattered garrisons and Swiss mercenary pike battalions under Pr&eacute;cy, creating a formidable army. Ferdinand II, eager to confront the French, decided to face d'Aubigny near Seminara without fully scouting the enemy's strength. Fernandez de Cordoba advised caution, but the decision to engage had already been made. The allied forces deployed near a stream east of Seminara, with Neapolitan infantry on the left and cavalry on the right. The French force, numbering around 2,000 Swiss pikemen, 400 heavily armored gendarmes, and supporting infantry, advanced directly. The Swiss mercenaries, renowned for their discipline and devastating pike formations, took the lead, supported by French cavalry. Initially, the allied forces held their ground, with Spanish jinetes (light cavalry) harassing the French gendarmes using hit-and-run tactics reminiscent of Spain's wars against the Moors. However, the Neapolitan militia, unaccustomed to the professional discipline of their adversaries, panicked and fled when the Swiss pikemen advanced. Their retreat exposed the allied left flank, leaving the Spanish infantry vulnerable. The Swiss mercenaries overran the Spanish rodeleros (sword-and-shield infantry), while the French gendarmes decisively defeated the allied cavalry. Ferdinand II, conspicuous in his regal attire, was unhorsed and narrowly escaped capture, thanks to the self-sacrifice of a nobleman who gave him his horse and delayed the French pursuit. Meanwhile, Fernandez de Cordoba led a desperate rearguard action, allowing the remnants of the allied army to retreat. By the end of the day, the French were victorious, and Fernandez de Cordoba fled to Messina to regroup. The French victory at Seminara, while tactically impressive, did little to change their precarious position in southern Italy. The French garrison remained isolated, and Ferdinand II quickly retook Naples through a combination of popular support, naval aid, and ruse. Fernandez de Cordoba, avoiding further pitched battles, resorted to guerrilla tactics, systematically recapturing territory in Calabria while avoiding direct confrontations with Swiss pike formations or French cavalry. By 1496, the French garrison in southern Italy was weakened by lack of supplies and mutinies among unpaid mercenaries. The remaining forces were trapped at Atella and surrendered to the combined Spanish and Neapolitan army. Charles VIII's ambitions in Italy were effectively ended, though his campaign set the stage for decades of conflict known as the Italian Wars. While Seminara was a defeat for the Spanish, its lessons profoundly influenced military doctrine. The failure of Spanish troops, particularly the rodeleros, against Swiss pikemen and French gendarmes convinced Fernandez de Cordoba of the need to modernize the Spanish army. He began incorporating firearms into pike and shot formations, creating the tercios, a combined-arms system that would dominate European battlefields for over a century. Fernandez de Cordoba's reforms, combined with his later victories, earned him the title El Gran Capitan (&ldquo;The Great Captain&rdquo;) and solidified his reputation as one of the greatest generals of the Italian Wars. The Battle of Seminara, though a French triumph, ultimately catalyzed Spain's rise as a dominant military power in Renaissance Europe.

Battle of Seminara

In early April 1500, during the Second Italian War, the French army, bolstered by reinforcements under Louis II de la Tr&eacute;moille, prepared to challenge Ludovico Sforza for control of the Duchy of Milan. La Tr&eacute;moille arrived at Mortara with about 500 men and artillery, followed closely by 10,000 Swiss mercenaries under the Baillie of Dijon. On April 5, the full French force was assembled and marched on Novara, where Sforza's forces had fortified themselves. Both armies relied heavily on Swiss mercenaries, a situation that introduced complications. The Helvetic cantons, supplying men to both sides, stipulated in their contracts that Swiss soldiers could not be forced to fight their compatriots. This clause created tension as Swiss soldiers from opposing camps fraternized, drinking together on the eve of battle. On April 8, the French advanced on Novara, launching a cannonade against Sforza's army. The barrage pressured Sforza&rsquo;s forces into retreating within the fortress of Novara, prompting the French to lay siege. La Tr&eacute;moille further tightened his grip by fortifying positions between Novara and the Tessin River, cutting off Sforza's route to Milan. As the siege dragged on, morale among Sforza's troops crumbled. On the night of April 9, the Swiss mercenaries serving Sforza mutinied, unwilling to fight their countrymen. They negotiated a surrender with the French, securing terms that allowed them to depart Novara with their belongings, provided they laid down their arms. Seeing the Swiss depart, the German Landsknechts in Sforza&rsquo;s army followed suit and also surrendered under similar terms. With his professional troops abandoning him, Sforza&rsquo;s situation became untenable. The remaining Lombard and stratioti forces attempted to break through the French lines toward the Tessin but were intercepted and decisively routed. Meanwhile, the French closely scrutinized the retreating Swiss mercenaries, suspecting that Sforza might be hiding among them. Their suspicions proved correct&mdash;two of his companions betrayed him, revealing his location. Ludovico Sforza was captured and taken to France, where he was imprisoned in the Ch&acirc;teau de Loches. Initially subjected to harsh conditions, including confinement in a cramped cage, Sforza&rsquo;s treatment gradually improved after 1504. However, his freedom was never restored, and he died in captivity in 1508. The French victory at Novara marked a turning point in the campaign. With Sforza removed, Milan fell securely into French hands, reinforcing Louis XII&rsquo;s claim to the duchy and further advancing France&rsquo;s ambitions in Italy.

Battle of Novara (1500)

Following the French victory at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, their fortunes in Italy quickly declined. The French were driven out of Milan by the Holy League, and Swiss mercenaries installed Maximilian Sforza as Duke of Milan later that year. By mid-1513, King Louis XII of France sought to reclaim Milan. A French army of over 20,000, commanded by Louis de la Tr&eacute;moille, marched into the duchy, capturing much of its western territory and besieging the city of Novara, held by Swiss mercenaries loyal to Sforza. On the night of 5 June 1513, a Swiss relief force of some 12,000 troops arrived near Novara. At dawn, they launched a surprise attack on the French camp. The French Landsknecht pikemen, trained and equipped similarly to the Swiss, quickly formed into dense squares and attempted to resist the Swiss assault. French artillery, positioned to support the defenders, inflicted heavy losses on the advancing Swiss. Despite this, the Swiss employed their hallmark aggressive tactics, launching an encircling attack after forced marches. They overran the French artillery, shattered the Landsknecht formations, and forced the French cavalry to flee the field without engaging effectively. Encircled and overwhelmed, the French army collapsed, abandoning their baggage train and retreating in disarray. The battle was a disaster for the French, who suffered at least 5,000 casualties, while the Swiss lost around 1,500, primarily from artillery fire during their advance. The Swiss, notorious for their lack of clemency toward enemies, executed captured German Landsknechts who had fought for the French, viewing them as traitors to the Swiss cause. Although the Swiss lacked cavalry to pursue the retreating French, their victory was decisive. The French were forced to abandon their campaign and withdraw entirely from Milan and Italy. The Swiss captured 22 French artillery pieces, further emphasizing their triumph. The Battle of Novara cemented the Swiss infantry's reputation as a dominant force in European warfare. The defeat also dealt a severe blow to French ambitions in Italy. With Milan secure under Maximilian Sforza and the French in retreat, Louis XII's hopes of reclaiming influence in the region were dashed, at least temporarily.

Battle of Novara (1513)

The Siege of Florence commenced on 24 October 1529 and concluded on 10 August 1530, marking a significant event in the War of the League of Cognac. Following the Treaty of Bologna, Pope Clement VII and Emperor Charles V coordinated an offensive to restore Medici rule in Florence. An Imperial and Spanish army, led by Philibert of Châlon, Prince of Orange, and Pier Maria III de' Rossi, surrounded the city with approximately 7,000 infantry, bolstered by additional troops over the course of the siege. The Florentine Republic, having established itself after the Sack of Rome in 1527, prepared for defense by mobilizing around 10,000 militia and fortifying the city, despite internal dissent and the defection of some mercenaries.As the siege progressed, the Imperial forces engaged in artillery duels and skirmishes rather than direct assaults, due to the strength of the Florentine fortifications. The situation for Florence deteriorated when the Imperial army captured Volterra, a critical supply point, after the Florentine commander Francesco Ferruccio disobeyed orders and withdrew his troops. The Florentines, hoping for relief from Ferruccio, faced a decisive blow at the Battle of Gavinana on 3 August 1530, where both Ferruccio and the Prince of Orange were killed, leading to a significant defeat for the Florentine forces.With Ferruccio's army destroyed and no external support forthcoming, the Republic's ability to resist collapsed. On 10 August 1530, representatives of Florence surrendered to the Imperial forces, resulting in the reinstatement of Alessandro de' Medici as ruler. The aftermath saw the execution or banishment of many leaders of the Republic, solidifying the Medici's return to power in the city.

Siege of Florence (1529–1530)

In early 1512, de Foix led a French army into the Romagna and Veneto, capturing key cities and besieging Ravenna, a crucial stronghold of the Papal States. Despite initial successes, de Foix faced pressure to engage the Holy League before French forces were recalled to defend against an English invasion. On 9 April, the Holy League army arrived near Ravenna and camped along the Ronco River, preparing to relieve the city. Determined to force a decisive battle, de Foix crossed the river and prepared to attack the Spanish-Papal position on Easter morning. The battle began with a prolonged artillery exchange, described as the most violent of its kind to date. The French artillery, including modern cannon provided by Alfonso I d&rsquo;Este, Duke of Ferrara, inflicted devastating casualties on the Holy League's cavalry and infantry. Despite this, the Spanish artillery caused significant losses among the French infantry, particularly the Gascons and landsknechts. Both sides endured heavy casualties, with the artillery duel alone reportedly killing thousands. The artillery barrage forced the Holy League's cavalry to act. Under Alfonso Carvajal, Fabrizio Colonna, and Fernando d&rsquo;Avalos, the Spanish heavy and light cavalry launched a series of attacks against the French positions. The French cavalry, led by La Palice, Bayard, and d&rsquo;Al&egrave;gre, repelled these assaults in fierce melees. Ultimately, the French cavalry prevailed, routing the Spanish horsemen and driving Colonna back into the entrenchments. As the cavalry fought, de Foix ordered his infantry to assault the Spanish-Papal lines. The French landsknechts, supported by Gascon crossbowmen and Picard pikemen, launched repeated attacks on the Spanish trenches. The Spanish infantry, commanded by Pedro Navarro, held their ground, inflicting massive casualties on the attacking landsknechts with their close-combat tactics. However, a renewed French assault, combined with the return of victorious French cavalry, overwhelmed the defenders. Navarro and Colonna were captured, and the Spanish infantry was annihilated or forced to flee. In the final phase of the battle, Gaston de Foix personally led a small force to pursue retreating Spanish troops. In the ensuing skirmish, de Foix was killed, a devastating loss for the French army. His death overshadowed the French victory, as he had been instrumental in their recent successes in Italy. The French victory at Ravenna shattered the Holy League army, leaving the Spanish-Papal forces in disarray and the city defenseless. Ravenna fell shortly after and was thoroughly sacked by the French over three days. Despite their triumph, the death of Gaston de Foix deprived the French of their most capable commander. Under La Palice, the French lacked the initiative to consolidate their position in Italy. By August 1512, the French army was forced to retreat from the peninsula under renewed pressure from the Holy League. The Battle of Ravenna marked a turning point in the Italian Wars, showcasing the destructive potential of artillery on the battlefield and the rise of modern combined-arms tactics. However, the loss of de Foix and the subsequent withdrawal of French forces allowed the Holy League to regain control of Italy, setting the stage for further conflict.

Battle of Ravenna

The Battle of Cerignola, fought on 28 April 1503, was a decisive engagement during the Third Italian War that showcased the effectiveness of Spain's new pike-and-shot tactics. The battle arose from tensions over the Treaty of Granada, which pided the Kingdom of Naples between France and Spain but soon led to conflict over territorial disputes. Spanish forces under Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba faced the French army led by Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours near the town of Cerignola in southern Italy. Outnumbered and lacking the artillery advantage of the French, Fernandez de Cordoba utilized terrain and defensive fortifications to compensate. The Spanish positioned themselves on the heights of Cerignola, fortifying their position with ditches, stakes, and trenches. The army was organized into coronelias, mixed infantry formations combining pikes, arquebuses, and swordsmen, a revolutionary adaptation that moved away from the cavalry-dominated forces of the late 15th century. Spanish artillery occupied the high ground, with light cavalry screening the front lines and heavy cavalry held in reserve. The French army, which included heavy cavalry, Swiss pikemen, and Gascon infantry, approached the Spanish position without its artillery, which failed to arrive in time. The French relied on their renowned Compagnies d'Ordonnance cavalry and Swiss mercenaries to break through the Spanish defenses. The battle began with two French cavalry charges against the Spanish center. Both were repulsed by intense volleys of arquebus fire and artillery. A subsequent French attack on the Spanish right flank was thwarted when several cavalrymen fell into the ditches and were exposed to devastating fire. Among the casualties was Nemours, reportedly one of the first European generals killed by small-arms fire. The Swiss pikemen, commanded by Chandieu, launched an infantry assault before the French rearguard and artillery arrived. In response, Fernandez de Cordoba withdrew his arquebusiers to the flanks and brought his Landsknecht pikemen to the center. The Swiss, along with Gascon infantry, were unable to breach the Spanish defenses. Flanked by arquebus fire, harassed by Spanish light cavalry, and held in place by the Landsknechts, the French infantry suffered heavy losses and was forced to retreat. Seizing the moment, Fernandez de Cordoba ordered a counterattack. Spanish infantry, supported by heavy cavalry, routed the remaining French forces. Although the Swiss pikemen managed to withdraw in relatively good order, the rest of the French army, including its cavalry, collapsed under the Spanish assault. The French suffered a catastrophic defeat, with approximately 4,000 casualties, compared to only 500 Spanish losses. Spanish forces captured French artillery and supply wagons, further crippling their opponents. Fernandez de Cordoba, demonstrating magnanimity, hosted a military funeral for the fallen Nemours and ordered prayers for all the dead on the battlefield, instituting the "call to prayer" that became a hallmark of Western military tradition. The victory at Cerignola forced the French to retreat to the fortress of Gaeta. Although the Spanish were unable to capture the fortress immediately, the battle marked the beginning of Spain's dominance in Italy. Moreover, it is considered the first major battle won through the use of firearms, demonstrating the effectiveness of pike-and-shot tactics and heralding a new era of warfare. Cerignola not only established Spanish military supremacy but also signaled the end of traditional medieval warfare dominated by heavy cavalry, paving the way for modern infantry-centric armies. This dominance lasted until Spain's defeat at the Battle of Rocroi in 1643.

Battle of Cerignola

In November 1503, the Spanish and French armies faced each other across the Garigliano River, approximately 60 kilometers north of Naples. The Spanish camped on the southern bank, while the French occupied the northern side near the ruins of Minturnae (Traetto), supported by supplies from the nearby port of Gaeta. The marshy, unhealthy terrain caused illness and attrition among both armies, leading to a protracted stalemate. Several Spanish attempts to cross the river using makeshift bridges had failed, and their commander, Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, hesitated between retreating or launching another attack. The arrival of reinforcements, including Bartolomeo d'Alviano and Prospero Colonna, gave Fernandez de Cordoba the confidence to act. Using deception, he feigned a retreat while secretly preparing to cross the river using bridges constructed in the castle of Sessa Aurunca, 23 kilometers from the Spanish camp. On the night of 27-28 December, the Spanish transported the bridging materials to a concealed location near the castle of Suio, about six kilometers north of the French camp. Construction began at dawn, and by 10 a.m., 3,500 Spanish troops had successfully crossed the river. The 300 Norman crossbowmen stationed in Suio failed to detect the maneuver, enabling Fernandez de Cordoba to follow with 2,000 German Landsknecht pikemen and 200 horsemen led by Colonna. The Spanish launched their attack, first targeting the French bridge and forcing the defenders to retreat. D'Alviano's vanguard quickly captured Suio, and when the fleeing French troops reached Castelforte, they abandoned their positions there as well. By nightfall, Fernandez de Cordoba's forces were firmly established across the Garigliano. The French commander, Ludovico II, Marquis of Saluzzo, found his army in a precarious position. Disease had ravaged the French camp, leaving many soldiers incapacitated. French captain Yves d'Alegre ordered the destruction of their own bridge and a general retreat toward Gaeta, abandoning their sick troops and nine artillery pieces in the process. Fernandez de Cordoba continued the pursuit. At Scauri, the French made a stand, and Chevalier Bayard defended a critical bridge, buying time for the French forces to retreat. Despite the spirited defense, the Spanish steadily advanced, with Prospero Colonna's cavalry harassing the retreating French. A final skirmish at Mola saw the French briefly resist, but the arrival of the main Spanish force forced another retreat. By the time the French reached Gaeta, they were disorganized and demoralized. The Spanish victory at Garigliano broke the French offensive. The French forces retreated to Gaeta but surrendered after a brief siege. The remnants of the French army either escaped by sea or trekked back to Milan, suffering heavy casualties from hunger, disease, and attacks by civilians. Even Ludovico, Marquis of Saluzzo, succumbed to illness during the retreat, dying in Genoa. The battle sealed Spanish dominance in Naples. The Treaty of Blois (1504) formally ended hostilities, with France recognizing Spanish authority over the kingdom. The Spanish victory at Garigliano underscored the tactical brilliance of Fernandez de Cordoba, cementing his reputation as El Gran Capitan and marking the rise of Spanish supremacy in Italy. This dominance would continue to shape European politics and warfare for much of the 16th century.

Battle of Garigliano

The Battle of La Motta, also referred to as the Battle of Schio, occurred on 7 October 1513 near Vicenza in the Veneto region of the Republic of Venice. The conflict was part of the War of the League of Cambrai and involved a Venetian army led by Bartolomeo d'Alviano facing a combined force of Spanish and Holy Roman Empire troops commanded by Ramón de Cardona and Fernando d'Ávalos. The Venetian forces, bolstered by reinforcements from the local nobility, sought to prevent the Spanish from advancing further into Venetian territory after a series of confrontations in the region.On the day of the battle, the Spanish and German infantry, numbering approximately 7,000 men, were well-positioned and launched a coordinated assault against the Venetian forces. The engagement resulted in significant casualties for the Venetians, with estimates indicating over 4,500 dead and wounded. The ferocity of the Spanish charge led to a decisive defeat for D'Alviano's army, causing a rout that scattered the Venetian troops and forced them to retreat.Following the battle, skirmishes continued between the opposing forces in the northeastern region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia throughout the remainder of 1513 and into 1514. Despite the Venetian defeat, the Spanish and Imperial forces did not capitalize on their victory, and the conflict persisted as the political landscape in Italy continued to evolve with the changing leadership in France.

Battle of La Motta (1513)

On 5 September 1494, the Battle of Rapallo unfolded near the Ligurian coast as part of the early Italian Wars. The clash, though small in scale, was a decisive encounter between Swiss mercenaries in French service, their Genoese-Milanese allies, and Neapolitan forces led by Giulio Orsini. It demonstrated the brutal efficiency of the Swiss infantry and highlighted the growing importance of artillery in Renaissance warfare. In the autumn of 1494, King Charles VIII of France launched his campaign to claim the Kingdom of Naples, igniting the Italian Wars. As part of their strategy, the French sought to secure Genoa, a key maritime ally. In early September, Neapolitan forces, numbering 4,000 men under Giulio Orsini, Obietto Fieschi, and Fregosino Campofregoso, occupied the town of Rapallo, intending to foment rebellion against French-backed Genoese rule. However, the Neapolitan fleet, which provided critical support, was forced to withdraw due to bad weather, leaving the defenders isolated. On 5 September, Louis d'Orleans, cousin of Charles VIII, landed at Rapallo with an initial force of 1,000 Swiss mercenaries, renowned for their skill in pike warfare. This force was soon reinforced by an additional 2,000 Swiss soldiers arriving overland, accompanied by Genoese and Milanese infantry. The Neapolitans, despite their defensive position, faced a determined French-led attack. The battle began with skirmishes between Swiss mercenaries and Neapolitan forces, but the rugged terrain around Rapallo made it difficult for the Swiss to deploy their fearsome pike squares effectively. The bulk of the fighting, therefore, fell to the Genoese-Milanese infantry. As the battle intensified, the French fleet offshore opened fire with concentrated artillery, targeting Neapolitan positions. The sustained bombardment broke the Neapolitan lines, forcing them into a disorderly retreat. The Swiss mercenaries, famed for their discipline but also their brutality, pursued the fleeing Neapolitans. Many who tried to surrender were cut down, and the Swiss slaughtered wounded enemy soldiers. In the chaos, Giulio Orsini and Fregosino Campofregoso were captured. With the battle won, the Swiss turned their fury on the town of Rapallo, looting and sacking it. The destruction underscored the harsh realities of Renaissance warfare and the ruthlessness of mercenary forces. Despite its relatively small scale, the French victory at Rapallo was strategically significant. It thwarted the Neapolitan attempt to destabilize Genoa, strengthening French influence in the region as Charles VIII pressed his campaign southward toward Naples. The Battle of Rapallo demonstrated the increasing reliance on professional armies, the effectiveness of artillery in disrupting entrenched forces, and the devastating consequences of unchecked mercenary violence. It set the stage for the larger conflicts of the Italian Wars, where such dynamics would shape the fate of the Italian peninsula.

Battle of Rapallo (1494)

In the summer of 1494, King Charles VIII of France launched his audacious campaign to conquer the Kingdom of Naples, with a formidable army advancing through the Italian Peninsula. His progress was facilitated by alliances, including one with Ludovico Sforza (known as "il Moro"), the de facto ruler of the Duchy of Milan. Among those caught in the political crossfire was Caterina Sforza, regent of Imola and Forl&igrave;, who reluctantly became entangled in the conflict. The Siege of Mordano, which took place from 19 to 21 October 1494, was a key episode in this campaign, demonstrating the ferocity of Renaissance warfare and the pisions within allied forces. By June 1494, the French army, equipped with modern artillery and bolstered by Swiss mercenaries, was ready to march southward toward Naples. However, tensions between Milan and Naples predated Charles&rsquo;s expedition. Ludovico il Moro had usurped control of the Duchy of Milan, sidelining his young nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza, which angered Naples. When King Ferrante of Naples died in 1494, his son, Alfonso II, ascended the throne and declared war on Milan. Alfonso was supported by the Papal States and the Republic of Florence. Caterina Sforza, ruling on behalf of her son Ottaviano Riario, initially remained neutral despite familial ties to both Milan and Naples. However, by late summer, she reluctantly joined the anti-French League, receiving 16,000 gold ducats in return for her support. As tensions escalated, Caterina fortified her strongholds, including Mordano, to prepare for the inevitable clash. By October 1494, the Neapolitan army, led by Ferrandino of Aragon, Duke of Calabria, advanced into Caterina's territory, engaging in skirmishes with the Franco-Milanese forces under commanders like Aubigny and Gian Francesco Sanseverino (Fracasso). Mordano, a strategically important but modestly defended village, became the focus of the conflict. Its garrison, commanded by Marino Mercatelli, was determined to resist. On 20 October, the Franco-Milanese army surrounded Mordano. The French, angered by prior skirmishes, sought to take the fortress at all costs. Fracasso, recognizing the brutality of the French troops, attempted to negotiate the town&rsquo;s peaceful surrender, but Mercatelli, supported by Monsignor Gianfrancesco Borelli and Count Calderini, refused. Mordano's defenders vowed to fight to the death. French artillery opened fire on the fortress, devastating the walls and towers. As night fell on 21 October, the French launched a full assault, using axes to destroy the gates and storming the town from multiple fronts. The defenders, overwhelmed and exhausted, surrendered shortly before midnight. The aftermath of the siege was catastrophic for Mordano. French soldiers, enraged by the resistance, began looting and destroying the town. They slaughtered civilians, burned buildings, and committed widespread atrocities. The drawbridge, crowded with French troops preparing to sack the fortress, collapsed, killing many who drowned in the moat below. Despite this chaos, the French pressed on, targeting the village for further destruction. The Milanese contingent, under Fracasso, intervened to prevent a total massacre. Milanese soldiers saved many civilians, particularly women who had taken refuge in churches, and preserved sacred objects. This restraint enraged the French troops, who came close to attacking their allies in retaliation. To placate the French, the Milanese allowed them to execute Johannes, a German artilleryman who had killed a French nobleman during the siege. Among the defenders, Mercatelli and Borelli were taken prisoner, later ransomed by Caterina Sforza. Count Calderini, disguising himself as a French soldier, managed to escape and warned Caterina of the advancing French army. Mordano&rsquo;s destruction was followed by further devastation in the surrounding areas, as the French moved toward Forl&igrave;. The fall of Mordano deeply angered Caterina Sforza. She blamed both Ferrandino for failing to come to her aid and Gian Francesco Sanseverino for his role in the betrayal. Seeking to protect her remaining territory, she began covertly negotiating with the Franco-Milanese forces to secure her position, a decision that strained her already fragile alliance with Naples. Ferrandino, though saddened by Mordano&rsquo;s fate, lacked the resources to directly challenge the Franco-Milanese army and retreated toward Faenza. The Siege of Mordano exemplified the brutality of the Italian Wars, with civilians bearing the brunt of the violence. The French demonstrated the destructive power of their artillery and their willingness to use terror as a tool of war. However, the Milanese efforts to shield civilians highlighted pisions within the Franco-Milanese alliance. For Caterina Sforza, the loss of Mordano was both a personal and political blow, forcing her to navigate the dangerous politics of the Italian Wars carefully. For the French, the siege further cemented their reputation as a dominant, if ruthless, military force as they continued their march toward Naples.

Siege of Mordano

In late October 1494, King Charles VIII of France&rsquo;s campaign to conquer Naples reached Fivizzano, a fortified Florentine town in Tuscany. The Siege of Fivizzano, lasting from 26 to 29 October, marked another brutal episode in the early stages of the Italian Wars, showcasing the devastating modern warfare that the French army brought to Italy. Charles VIII's campaign through Italy, launched earlier in the year, was characterized by a combination of military innovation and relentless speed. His forces, equipped with advanced artillery, overran cities with a ferocity that shocked the Italian states, accustomed to wars that were often more ceremonial than destructive. Fivizzano, a strategically located town on the route to Naples, became a target as the French marched south. At the time, Fivizzano was under Florentine control but defended by foreign mercenaries and local forces. The town&rsquo;s defenses were bolstered by the presence of Gabriello Malaspina, the Marquis of Fosdinovo, who had been entrusted with its protection. Despite his efforts, Fivizzano would become a victim of the brutal tactics employed by the French. The French army reached Fivizzano on 26 October 1494. Charles VIII&rsquo;s forces quickly surrounded the town, deploying their powerful artillery. Unlike many Italian fortresses that relied on traditional defenses, Fivizzano was no match for the French cannons, which could breach walls with unprecedented efficiency. After several days of bombardment, the French breached the defenses and stormed the town. The foreign mercenaries defending Fivizzano were slaughtered, and the inhabitants fared little better. Reports describe widespread killing and destruction, with many civilians falling victim to the violence. The town was thoroughly sacked, leaving it in ruins. The fall of Fivizzano had a profound psychological impact on Italy. Contemporary accounts highlight the shock and terror felt by Italian observers, who were unprepared for the ferocity and bloodshed the French brought to their campaigns. Wars in Italy had often been fought with an air of theatricality, focusing on displays of power and limited casualties among civilians. The siege of Fivizzano shattered this norm, introducing the Italian peninsula to the harsher realities of Renaissance warfare. Italian chronicler Francesco Guicciardini captured the fear that swept across the region, describing the French tactics as "something new and very frightening for Italy." The sacking of Fivizzano was a stark warning to other towns and cities along Charles VIII&rsquo;s path, many of which chose to surrender without resistance to avoid similar devastation. For Charles VIII, the victory at Fivizzano demonstrated the effectiveness of his modernized army and its ability to instill fear. The siege reinforced his reputation as an unstoppable force as he continued his march toward Naples. However, the brutality also sowed the seeds of opposition among the Italian states, who would later form the League of Venice to resist French aggression.

Siege of Fivizzano

After the Battle of Fornovo on 6 July 1495, the French forces that Charles VIII had left in southern Italy began to face mounting pressure from the combined Neapolitan-Aragonese forces under Ferdinand II of Naples. Among the key French-held positions in Naples was the Castel Nuovo, or Maschio Angioino, a massive medieval fortress overlooking the Bay of Naples. From 6 July to 8 December 1495, this stronghold became the focal point of a protracted siege, with the French viceroy Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, making a determined stand against the forces of the League of Venice. Charles VIII had left Montpensier and a garrison in Naples to consolidate his conquest while he marched northward. However, the return of Ferdinand II from exile, supported by the Aragonese fleet and Spanish reinforcements under Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, quickly turned the tide against the French occupiers. By July, Ferdinand had re-entered Naples, where he was welcomed by a population eager to overthrow the French, whose brief rule had become unpopular due to heavy taxation and mistreatment of the citizenry. The recapture of the city forced Montpensier and the remnants of the French army to retreat to the Castel Nuovo, one of the most formidable fortresses in the region. The Siege of the Castel Nuovo began shortly after the city's fall. Ferdinand and his allies encircled the fortress, cutting off supplies and launching repeated assaults. Montpensier, however, resisted fiercely, relying on the castle's robust defenses and the morale of his remaining troops. The French forces, including Swiss mercenaries, managed to repel several attempts to breach the walls. The garrison also received some resupply and support by sea, as the French navy attempted to maintain a tenuous connection with the beleaguered stronghold. The siege dragged on for months, as Ferdinand II focused on consolidating control over the rest of southern Italy. Fernandez de Cordoba employed his growing reputation for tactical innovation, using Spanish infantry and artillery to tighten the blockade. Meanwhile, disease and hunger began to take a toll on the French defenders, weakening their ability to sustain their resistance. By December 1495, the situation inside the Castel Nuovo had become untenable. With no hope of relief from Charles VIII, who had retreated to France after his setbacks in northern Italy, Montpensier was forced to negotiate terms of surrender. On 8 December, the French garrison capitulated to Ferdinand II, marking a significant victory for the League of Venice. Montpensier and the surviving French troops were allowed to withdraw under honorable terms, though they left behind their heavy artillery and supplies. The fall of the Castel Nuovo cemented the restoration of Ferdinand II's rule in Naples and marked the effective end of French ambitions in southern Italy. Charles VIII's Italian campaign, while initially spectacular, ultimately collapsed under the combined resistance of the League of Venice and widespread local opposition. For the French, the siege highlighted the vulnerability of overextended supply lines and the challenges of holding territory in the face of unified opposition. The victory at Naples allowed Ferdinand and his Aragonese allies to consolidate their hold on the region, while Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba continued to refine the tactics that would later make him one of the most celebrated commanders of the Italian Wars. The siege also reinforced the lesson, demonstrated repeatedly during the Italian Wars, that fortresses could serve as critical focal points in the struggle for control over contested territories. For Italy, the siege of the Castel Nuovo represented another chapter in the ongoing struggle between foreign powers for dominance over the fragmented peninsula.

Siege of the Castel Nuovo

The Siege of Novara unfolded during the summer and autumn of 1495, as part of the ongoing Italian War of 1494-1495. Following King Charles VIII's retreat from Naples and his narrow escape at the Battle of Fornovo, his cousin, Louis d'Orleans, opened a second front by advancing into the Duchy of Milan, a former French ally that had joined the League of Venice. Louis seized the city of Novara on 11 June 1495, intending to press his own claim to the Milanese duchy. This move triggered a determined response from the Milanese and their allies, culminating in a three-month siege that left the French forces inside the city decimated by starvation and disease. The campaign had its roots in Charles VIII's initial alliance with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, during the early phase of the French invasion in 1494. However, Charles's harsh policies in Italy, including widespread destruction and punitive measures, alienated Ludovico and many Italian states, leading to the formation of the League of Venice to drive the French out. The defection of Milan provided Louis d'Orleans an opportunity to assert his claim to the duchy, which he considered his right as a descendant of Valentina Visconti, a Milanese princess. Louis's occupation of Novara and his subsequent advance toward Vigevano alarmed Ludovico, who briefly contemplated fleeing Milan altogether. However, his wife, Beatrice d'Este, rallied the Milanese court and took charge of organizing the duchy's defenses. With Milan in crisis and its finances depleted, Beatrice's leadership proved critical in restoring morale and coordinating the military response. The Milanese, supported by Venetian and League troops, eventually halted Louis's advance and forced him to retreat to Novara, where he fortified his position. By 19 July, Francesco II Gonzaga, the captain-general of the League forces, arrived to begin the siege. The besieging army surrounded the city and cut off its water supply by perting a nearby river. To avoid destroying the city outright, Ludovico refrained from using heavy artillery, relying instead on starvation tactics to weaken the French garrison. Conditions inside Novara deteriorated rapidly. The city's defenders, poorly provisioned and demoralized, suffered from severe famine and outbreaks of disease. Louis expelled civilians from the city to conserve resources, leaving many to perish outside the walls or fall prey to the Stradioti, Venetian light cavalry known for their ruthlessness. Rumors spread within the city that King Charles VIII had been defeated or abandoned the French troops in Novara, further eroding morale. The dire situation eventually forced Louis d'Orleans to seek a truce. On 24 September 1495, after months of suffering and the loss of an estimated 2,000 soldiers to hunger and illness, Louis surrendered Novara and withdrew his forces. The French troops who survived the siege were in such poor condition that even their retreat to safety left many dead along the roads. The League forces retook the city, securing a critical victory for Ludovico and the League of Venice. The Peace of Vercelli, signed on 9 October 1495 between Charles VIII and Ludovico Sforza, formally ended hostilities between France and Milan. Charles abandoned his ambitions in Milan, while Ludovico restored relations with the French, allowing them limited use of Genoese ports to support their remaining garrisons in Naples. However, this peace sowed discord within the League, as Venice and Spain felt excluded from the negotiations and objected to some of the concessions granted to France. The resulting tensions undermined the League's unity, weakening the coalition against French aggression. The Siege of Novara marked the final major episode of Charles VIII's Italian campaign. While the French initially advanced with remarkable speed and success, the campaign ultimately collapsed under the combined resistance of Italian states and their foreign allies. For Louis d'Orleans, the failure at Novara highlighted the limits of French ambitions in Milan, though his desire for revenge foreshadowed his later campaigns as King Louis XII. For Ludovico Sforza, the siege was a short-term success, but his reliance on shifting alliances and his growing mistrust of the League would lead to further instability in Milan. The siege also underscored the fragility of the Italian states and their vulnerability to foreign powers. Although Novara was reclaimed, the protracted conflict and devastation left a lasting impact, paving the way for continued invasions and political turmoil during the Italian Wars.

Siege of Novara

The Siege of Atella, which took place in the summer of 1496, marked the final chapter of the First Italian War and the decisive expulsion of French forces from southern Italy. Led by the brilliant Castilian general Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, whose strategic prowess earned him the title El Gran Capitan, the siege showcased a masterclass in combined arms tactics and coalition warfare. It ended in a resounding victory for the League of Venice, cementing the restoration of Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne. By mid-1496, French forces in southern Italy, already in retreat after setbacks at battles such as Seminara and the fall of Castel Nuovo, were concentrated in the fortress town of Atella, where the French commander Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, had established his headquarters. Montpensier's position was increasingly dire, as the French garrison was isolated, and Ferdinand II's Neapolitan forces were gradually reclaiming the kingdom with support from their allies in the League of Venice. Ferdinand II, emboldened by victories and hoping to conclude the campaign, pursued Montpensier to Atella. However, Ferdinand recognized the need for reinforcements and sought the aid of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, who was then engaged in pacifying French-controlled Calabria. Cordoba, renowned for his success in guerrilla tactics and innovative battlefield strategies, agreed to join Ferdinand, but only after securing his rear in Calabria to prevent French interference from the south. With a carefully selected force of 400 cavalry and 1,000 infantry, Cordoba marched to Atella. His reputation alone caused several French-aligned positions to surrender en route. By the time he reached the city, after 17 days of marching, his numbers had been bolstered by 500 additional troops from Spain, and he joined forces with Ferdinand, Cesare Borgia of the Papal States, and Francesco II Gonzaga of Venice, who relinquished overall command to Cordoba. Upon arriving at Atella, Cordoba conducted a meticulous evaluation of the city's defenses. His reconnaissance revealed a critical weak point: a group of mills outside the city walls that provided Atella with its water and food supply. Recognizing their strategic importance, Cordoba devised a plan to capture the mills, thereby cutting off the city's lifeline. The French commander, Montpensier, anticipated the move and stationed a detachment of Swiss pikemen and Gascon archers to defend the mills. On 1 July 1496, Cordoba launched an assault, deploying rodeleros (Spanish sword-and-shield infantry) supported by jinetes (light cavalry). The clash was brief but decisive. Demoralized by their precarious situation, the French defenders were swiftly overrun and fell back toward the city. Cordoba's light cavalry intercepted their retreat in a pincer movement, inflicting heavy casualties. The French garrison attempted to counterattack with their formidable gendarmes (heavy cavalry), but Cordoba regrouped his forces and repelled the assault. The French were forced to retreat back to Atella, having failed to dislodge the besiegers. With Atella increasingly isolated, Cordoba shifted focus to consolidating the League's control over the surrounding region. He captured the nearby towns of Ripacandida and Venosa, further tightening the noose around the French stronghold. Montpensier, realizing reinforcements from France were unlikely to arrive, agreed to terms, vowing to surrender the city if help did not come within 30 days. No relief force arrived. By August 1496, Montpensier and the starving French garrison capitulated, handing Atella over to the League of Venice. The surrender marked the complete collapse of French power in southern Italy. Montpensier, already in poor health, fell gravely ill during the retreat to France and died shortly afterward. The Siege of Atella was a resounding triumph for the League of Venice and solidified Ferdinand II's restoration to the Neapolitan throne. For Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, the victory at Atella enhanced his reputation as one of the era's most gifted military commanders. His innovative tactics and adaptability, particularly his effective use of combined arms and light cavalry, would later form the foundation of the Spanish tercios, a military system that dominated European battlefields for over a century. For Charles VIII and France, the loss at Atella marked the definitive end of the First Italian War. Charles's dreams of establishing a foothold in Italy, let alone his grander ambitions of launching a crusade against the Ottomans, were in ruins. The costly campaign left France deeply in debt and politically weakened, and Charles himself would die in 1498, leaving behind a precarious legacy. The broader consequences of the war were felt across Italy. Although the League of Venice had successfully expelled the French, the conflict exposed the peninsula's vulnerability to foreign powers. The immense wealth of Italy, combined with its fragmented political landscape, made it an irresistible prize for European monarchs. The siege of Atella closed the First Italian War, but it was only the opening act in the prolonged and destructive Italian Wars, which would engulf the peninsula for decades to come.

Siege of Atella

The Siege of Ostia in 1497 was a significant episode in the aftermath of the First Italian War, highlighting the lingering tensions between France and its former allies after King Charles VIII's retreat from Naples. The fort at Ostia, a key coastal stronghold near Rome, became the focal point of a standoff between Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) and the French, who had refused to relinquish their hold on the fortress despite their withdrawal from southern Italy. The siege, conducted by a Spanish-Papal coalition under the command of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, demonstrated the continued dominance of the League of Venice and further solidified Spain's growing influence in Italy. In 1494, Charles VIII of France had marched through Italy to press his claim to the Kingdom of Naples, occupying key territories, including Naples itself, before retreating north in 1495. As part of this campaign, the French requested safe passage through Rome from Pope Alexander VI, who reluctantly granted it under significant pressure. During this time, the French garrisoned the fort at Ostia, a critical strategic position controlling access to the Tiber River and, by extension, the city of Rome. When Charles VIII abandoned his Italian campaign, his forces retained control of Ostia, defying Papal demands to vacate the fortress. Pope Alexander VI, eager to restore Papal authority over Ostia, sought military assistance from the Spanish crown, which had become a leading power in the League of Venice. Spain's military reputation had been greatly enhanced by the successes of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba in southern Italy during the First Italian War. Responding to the Pope's request, Ferdinand II of Aragon dispatched Fernandez de Cordoba, who marched north from Naples to confront the French garrison at Ostia. By the time Fernandez de Cordoba arrived in the region, the French garrison at Ostia had fortified its position, expecting resistance. The Spanish commander, renowned for his tactical acumen, approached the siege methodically. His forces, composed of seasoned Spanish infantry and cavalry, worked closely with Papal troops to encircle the fortress and cut off its supply lines. The defenders, isolated and without hope of reinforcements from France, soon found themselves in a desperate position. The Spanish and Papal forces employed a combination of artillery bombardment and infantry assaults to weaken the fort's defenses. Fernandez de Cordoba's experience in siege warfare, honed during the campaigns in Naples, proved decisive. After weeks of sustained pressure, the French garrison, suffering from starvation and low morale, capitulated. The fortress was surrendered to the Spanish and Papal coalition, restoring it to Papal control. The fall of Ostia marked the end of French control over any remaining territories in central Italy. For Pope Alexander VI, the successful siege was a crucial victory that reaffirmed his authority over the Papal States and the surrounding region. The event also strengthened the alliance between the Papacy and Spain, which would play a key role in future Italian conflicts. For Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, the siege of Ostia was another demonstration of his military skill and reinforced his growing reputation as one of the most capable commanders of the era. It solidified his position as Spain's leading general in Italy and earned him further acclaim as El Gran Capitan. The French defeat at Ostia underscored the collapse of Charles VIII's Italian ambitions and highlighted the growing inability of France to maintain a foothold on the peninsula in the face of the unified opposition of the League of Venice. Although France's immediate influence in Italy had waned, the rivalries and conflicts ignited by Charles VIII's campaign would continue to shape the Italian Wars for decades, as other powers sought to exploit Italy's wealth and fragmented political landscape.

Siege of Ostia

In 1499, King Louis XII of France sought to claim Milan and Naples, invoking his descent from the Visconti and Anjou dynasties. Before launching his Italian campaign, he secured alliances with the Savoys, the Republic of Venice, and Pope Alexander VI. Leading a formidable army, Louis entered Italy, quickly occupying Piedmont, Genoa, and Cremona without resistance. By October, he took Milan, abandoned by Duke Ludovico Sforza, who fled to Tyrol under the protection of Emperor Maximilian I. Pope Alexander VI, in alliance with Louis XII, sought to secure lands for his son, Cesare Borgia, in Romagna. To this end, the Pope issued a bull revoking the feudal titles of the region&rsquo;s lords, including Caterina Sforza of Imola and Forl&igrave;. For Louis XII, Cesare&rsquo;s campaign was a distraction from his ultimate goal of Naples. Caterina, determined to resist Cesare&rsquo;s advancing forces, sought aid from Florence and Venice, but her efforts failed. Left without external support, she fortified her holdings, gathered an army, and sent her children to safety in Florence. On November 24, Cesare Borgia captured Imola after a valiant but ultimately futile resistance by its castellan. The fall of Imola left Caterina isolated, and her vassals debated surrender. Though many in Forl&igrave; preferred capitulation to avoid suffering, Caterina resolved to defend her city, denouncing the &ldquo;cowardice&rdquo; of her councilors. She fortified the Rocca di Ravaldino, stocked it with supplies, and assembled a force of knights, mercenaries, and volunteers. By December, Cesare&rsquo;s forces approached Forl&igrave;. On December 17, Forl&igrave;&rsquo;s leaders surrendered the city to Cesare on the condition that it would not be sacked. Despite his assurances, Cesare&rsquo;s troops plundered the city. Caterina retreated into the impregnable fortress of Ravaldino, severing the bridges connecting it to the city and preparing for a siege. Cesare's army, numbering 14,000, began its siege on December 19. Ravaldino&rsquo;s defenders, including Gascon and German mercenaries, were plagued by infighting, but Caterina maintained control. Cesare attempted to negotiate, offering Caterina fiefs and safe passage, but she rejected his terms, mocking his deceit. Legend holds that she even tried to lure Cesare into a trap during these parley attempts. Cesare positioned batteries around Ravaldino, bombarding the fortress with heavy artillery. Despite the destruction of key towers and ravelins, Caterina&rsquo;s forces repaired the fortifications nightly. When Cesare offered rewards for Caterina's capture, she defiantly countered with bounties on his head. In early January 1500, Cesare&rsquo;s cannon fire created breaches in the fortress walls. By January 12, Cesare&rsquo;s forces had constructed a makeshift bridge across the moat, and his troops scaled the ruins to storm Ravaldino. Caterina, clad in custom armor, personally fought to rally her troops. Though she ordered the destruction of powder magazines to halt the attackers, chaos ensued. Some defenders surrendered or fled, and Cesare&rsquo;s forces overwhelmed the keep. After hours of fighting, Caterina was captured by a soldier named Bertrand. She was later presented to Cesare, who reportedly paid the soldier a reduced ransom for her. Cesare Borgia's victory marked the end of Caterina&rsquo;s rule. She was taken to Rome, where she was imprisoned in Castel Sant&rsquo;Angelo after an escape attempt. Despite her defeat, Caterina&rsquo;s spirited defense earned widespread admiration across Italy. Niccol&ograve; Machiavelli and others celebrated her courage in writings and songs, recognizing her as a symbol of defiance and resilience against overwhelming odds. Forl&igrave; fell under papal control, and Cesare continued his campaign in Romagna, consolidating power with the support of his father, Alexander VI.

Siege of Forlì

In the summer of 1501, during the Italian Wars, King Louis XII of France, with the support of Pope Alexander VI, launched a campaign to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. The French army, commanded by Louis himself and accompanied by Cesare Borgia, advanced through the Papal States towards Naples. As they approached, the city of Capua became a focal point. Capua's defense was entrusted to the condottieri Fabrizio and Prospero Colonna, who prepared for the impending siege. On July 24, 1501, the French forces laid siege to Capua. Despite initial resistance, the city's defenses were breached. In the ensuing chaos, the French troops, along with Borgia's contingent, sacked Capua, resulting in widespread destruction and loss of life. Contemporary accounts describe atrocities committed during the sack, including the massacre of civilians and the assault of women. The fall of Capua had significant repercussions. The brutality displayed served as a grim warning to other Neapolitan cities about the consequences of resistance. Following this event, King Frederick of Naples abdicated the throne on July 25, 1501, leading to the occupation of Naples by Franco-Aragonese forces.

Sack of Capua

The Battle of Ruvo in early 1503 was one of the opening engagements of the Third Italian War, which followed the collapse of the Treaty of Granada. The agreement between Ferdinand the Catholic and Louis XII to partition the Kingdom of Naples had unraveled, reigniting hostilities between Spain and France over control of southern Italy. At the time, the Spanish forces under Gonzalo Fern&aacute;ndez de C&oacute;rdoba, also known as the "Great Captain," were entrenched at Barletta, holding their ground near the Ofanto River. Meanwhile, French forces, commanded by Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours, sought to consolidate their position in the region. Hoping to destabilize French control, C&oacute;rdoba launched a surprise offensive against the town of Ruvo, which was fortified and defended by Jacques de la Palice. Early in the morning, Spanish artillery initiated a heavy cannonade, breaching the city's defenses within four hours. The Spanish soldiers, pided into two assault groups led by C&oacute;rdoba himself and Diego Garc&iacute;a de Paredes, stormed through the breach and engaged the French defenders in intense, close-quarters combat. The fighting spilled into the streets and houses of Ruvo, lasting for seven brutal hours. Eventually, de la Palice was wounded and captured, marking a decisive Spanish victory. C&oacute;rdoba and his troops, unwilling to risk being caught by a larger French force, returned to Barletta shortly after. When Louis d'Armagnac attempted to march on Ruvo to relieve his garrison, he arrived to find the Spanish flag already flying above the town and withdrew, realizing he was too late to intervene. The victory at Ruvo demonstrated C&oacute;rdoba's tactical ingenuity and bolstered Spanish morale. It set the stage for further Spanish successes in the Neapolitan campaign, culminating in decisive victories at Cerignola and Garigliano later in 1503, which solidified Spanish control over the Kingdom of Naples.

Battle of Ruvo

In November 1500, King Louis XII of France and King Ferdinand II of Aragon concluded the secret Treaty of Granada, in which they agreed to pide the Kingdom of Naples between themselves, despite it being ruled by Ferdinand's cousin, Frederick of Naples. By 1501, a French army under B&eacute;rault Stuart d'Aubigny invaded Naples from the north, while Spanish forces commanded by Gonzalo Fern&aacute;ndez de C&oacute;rdoba advanced from the south. Frederick was deposed, and the kingdom was partitioned between the two powers as stipulated in the treaty. However, disputes soon arose between the French and Spanish over certain territories in the region, especially in Apulia and Calabria, which led to hostilities by mid-1502. The French forces were pided into two main groups: the Duke of Nemours maintained a siege of Fern&aacute;ndez de C&oacute;rdoba's forces at Barletta in Apulia, while d'Aubigny pursued Spanish forces led by Hugo de Cardona and Manuel de Benavides in Calabria. In February 1503, a Spanish fleet departed from Cartagena carrying 600 cavalry and 2,000 infantry under Luis Portocarrero, arriving in Messina, Sicily, on March 5. With the reinforcements, the Spanish aimed to bolster their forces in southern Italy. Although Portocarrero&rsquo;s death shortly after arriving created a temporary leadership vacuum, Fernando de Andrade assumed command. Andrade&rsquo;s forces crossed to the Italian mainland, concentrating at Seminara in Calabria. Hearing of the Spanish reinforcements, d'Aubigny marched with 200 cavalry and 800 infantry to counter them, lifting his siege of Terranova Sappo Minulio and taking position at San Martino. Andrade moved his troops to Seminara, where negotiations set the date for battle: April 21, 1503. On that day, the armies clashed halfway between Seminara and Gioia Tauro. The Spanish, with superior tactics and discipline, decisively defeated the French. D'Aubigny's troops fled northward in disarray, pursued by the victorious Spanish forces. The French commander and his remaining soldiers retreated to Castel Angitola, where they were besieged. After enduring a month-long siege, d'Aubigny surrendered and was taken prisoner, later held at Castel Nuovo in Naples. This Spanish victory marked a turning point in the campaign for Calabria, which soon fell under Spanish control. Just a week after the Battle of Seminara, Fern&aacute;ndez de C&oacute;rdoba would win another significant victory at Cerignola in Apulia, further solidifying Spanish dominance in southern Italy. The defeat at Seminara also marked the effective end of French resistance in Calabria and signaled the broader decline of French influence in the Kingdom of Naples during this phase of the Italian Wars.

Battle of Seminara (1503)

In July 1506, Genoa's pro-French nobility were expelled to Savona following a popular revolt. By late November 1506, King Louis XII of France was planning a military expedition to bring Genoa back under pro-French control. On March 28, 1507, the Genoese revolutionary council declared war on the King of France, who had already reached Piedmont with his army. From April 22 to 29, 1507, Louis XII laid siege to Genoa, ultimately defeating the Genoese revolutionaries. Following his victory, Louis arranged a triumphal entry and forced the Genoese to swear loyalty to him.

Siege of Genoa

In the years leading up to 1508, the ambitions of Louis XII of France in Italy had brought him considerable success, including the conquest of Genoa and Milan. However, his growing dominance troubled the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. Fearing French control over Italy and its implications for the Empire, Maximilian resolved to assert his authority and summoned a diet at Constance in April 1507, where he rallied the German princes to fund a campaign into Italy. Declaring himself a defender of the Church, Maximilian aimed to crown himself Emperor in Rome, declaring Louis XII an enemy of Christendom. By early 1508, preparations for the imperial campaign were underway, and initial movements began in January. Bartolomeo d'Alviano, a Venetian condottiero, worked to fortify strategic positions against the Habsburg advance. Maximilian's forces began infiltrating Venetian-held territories, capturing Ampezzo and key fortresses like Botestagno. By February, the imperial army, numbering thousands of troops, pushed into Cadore, compelling Venetian troops to withdraw from the region.Faced with the loss of Cadore, Venice appointed d'Alviano to lead a counteroffensive. On March 2, 1508, Alviano's forces, reinforced by thousands of infantry from Carnia, advanced into Cadore. The decisive engagement occurred near the Rio Secco, a snow-covered area where the Venetians ambushed the larger imperial forces. Alviano pided his troops strategically, using cavalry and crossbowmen to attack the flanks of the imperial square formation. The German infantry, initially well-organized, struggled to maintain their advance after the death of their commander, Sixt von Trautson, during a duel with the Venetian captain Rinieri della Sassetta. Alviano's forces ultimately broke the imperial lines, routing the enemy and killing nearly 1,700 German troops, while capturing hundreds more. Venetian losses were minimal by comparison. After the victory at Rio Secco, Alviano besieged the remaining imperial forces at the castle of Pieve di Cadore. Despite initial resistance, the Venetians launched a successful assault on March 4, breaching the defenses and forcing the garrison to surrender. The Venetians captured artillery, supplies, and valuables, which they distributed among their troops. Alviano's decisive leadership secured Venetian control of Cadore and dealt a severe blow to Maximilian's campaign.The Venetian victory at Rio Secco and Pieve di Cadore halted Maximilian's advance and secured Venice's northern territories. Alviano's triumph earned him significant rewards, including command over expanded forces and recognition as captain general of Venice. However, this Venetian success alarmed other European powers. By the end of 1508, Pope Julius II, along with France, the Holy Roman Empire, and other states, formed the League of Cambrai to counter Venice's growing influence. In the months following the battle, Alviano led Venetian forces deeper into Habsburg territory, capturing cities like Pordenone, Trieste, and Fiume. This series of victories marked the height of Venetian territorial expansion, but the League of Cambrai would soon unite powerful adversaries against Venice, culminating in the decisive Venetian defeat at Agnadello in 1509.

Battle of Cadore

The siege of Padua occurred during the War of the League of Cambrai, following the capture of the city by Imperial forces in June 1509. On 17 July, Venetian troops led by Andrea Gritti launched a rapid counteroffensive from Treviso, successfully retaking Padua, which had been defended by a garrison of landsknechts under Emperor Maximilian I. In response, Maximilian assembled an army primarily composed of mercenaries, intending to reclaim the city and its surrounding territory.By early August 1509, Maximilian's forces, numbering approximately 35,000 men, advanced from Trento into Venetian territory, bolstered by French and Papal contingents. However, logistical challenges, including a shortage of horses, delayed their arrival at Padua until mid-September. Meanwhile, Venetian commander Niccolò di Pitigliano had gathered the remnants of Venice's army, along with volunteer companies, to bolster the city's defenses. The siege commenced on 15 September, with Imperial and French artillery bombarding the city for two weeks, breaching its walls but failing to secure entry due to fierce Venetian resistance.An assault on 30 September by 7,500 landsknechts targeting the heavily bombarded Codalunga sector was repelled by Citolo da Perugia, a mercenary commander, whose defensive measures resulted in approximately 300 attackers killed and 400 wounded. Faced with mounting casualties and an inability to pay his mercenaries, Maximilian lifted the siege on 30 September, leaving a small detachment under the Duke of Anhalt before retreating to Tyrol with the bulk of his forces. This defeat marked a significant setback for Maximilian and delayed further Imperial military efforts in Italy until 1516.

Siege of Padua

The Battle of Polesella occurred on 22 December 1509, during the War of the League of Cambrai, involving the naval forces of the Duchy of Ferrara and the Republic of Venice on the River Po. The Venetian fleet, which had been stationed on the river, was preparing to launch an attack against Ferrara while Slavic and Albanian mercenaries, known as Stratioti, conducted raids within the duchy. On the night preceding the battle, the Ferrarese forces positioned their artillery along the riverbank, taking advantage of the high water levels that allowed enemy galleys to be brought close to the embankment.At dawn, the Ferrarese opened fire, resulting in a chaotic and devastating surprise attack. The Venetian fleet suffered significant losses, with many ships sunk or captured, and soldiers attempting to escape were either taken prisoner or killed. The Ferrarese forces captured 15 galleys and several other vessels, while Venetian casualties were reported at approximately 2,000 killed or drowned, alongside the loss of 60 flags. Angelo Trevisan, a Venetian commander, managed to flee but later faced trial in Venice for his failure to protect the fleet after his damaged galley sank five kilometers downstream.Five days after the battle, Duke Alfonso I d'Este entered Ferrara to a warm welcome from his wife, Lucrezia Borgia, along with the court and the jubilant populace. The events of the battle were later immortalized by Ludovico Ariosto in his epic poem, Orlando Furioso.

Battle of Polesella

The siege of Mirandola occurred from 2 January to 19 January 1511, as part of Pope Julius II's campaign against French influence in northern Italy during the War of the League of Cambrai. Mirandola, the capital of the Duchy of Mirandola, was strategically significant for controlling access to Ferrara. Julius II, having recently withdrawn from the League of Cambrai and allied with Venice, aimed to secure this position to prevent French reinforcements from aiding Ferrara. The Pope's forces, although initially small, included Venetian troops and Swiss mercenaries. On 2 January, Julius II arrived at Mirandola, took command, and initiated the siege after the nearby outpost of Concordia fell easily.Throughout the siege, the defenders of Mirandola resisted despite Julius's threats of pillage. The Pope's dissatisfaction with his generals prompted him to take direct control of the military operations. The siege progressed with artillery bombardments and attempts to breach the defenses, but the castle held firm against the Papal forces. The situation remained tense as the defenders refused to capitulate, even as the Pope sought to negotiate terms. The siege continued for over two weeks, with both sides suffering casualties, although specific numbers are not recorded.On 19 January 1511, after persistent pressure, Mirandola finally surrendered to Julius II. Upon entering the castle, the Pope endeavored to prevent his troops from looting and aimed to protect the local populace. This victory marked a significant step in Julius's campaign, although it did not lead to the immediate capture of Ferrara, which remained a focal point of his military objectives.

Siege of Mirandola (1511)

In February 1512, the city of Brescia, located in northern Italy, openly rebelled against French control, which it had been subjected to during the ongoing Italian Wars. Seeking to strengthen its resistance, Brescia garrisoned itself with Venetian troops, aligning with Venice against French domination. The French commander, Gaston de Foix, a skilled and daring young leader who had recently assumed command of the French armies in Italy, responded decisively to this challenge. Foix demanded Brescia's surrender, but the city's defenders refused. In response, Foix mobilized a force of approximately 12,000 soldiers and marched to besiege the city. The assault on Brescia took place under grim conditions, as heavy rain had turned the battlefield into a sea of mud. To adapt to the slippery terrain, Foix ordered his troops to remove their shoes, hoping for better traction as they advanced on the city's fortifications. Despite their determination, the defenders of Brescia, who had inflicted significant casualties on the attacking French forces, could not withstand the sustained assault. The city eventually fell to the French, and the aftermath was brutal. The French Gascon infantry and the German landsknechts, mercenary soldiers in the French army, unleashed their fury on the captured city. Over the course of five days, Brescia was thoroughly sacked, and thousands of civilians were massacred. Historical estimates place the death toll among the city's population between 8,000 and 15,000. The sheer devastation of Brescia served as a grim warning to other cities. Neighboring Bergamo, fearful of meeting a similar fate, chose to avoid resistance and instead paid the French a hefty ransom of 60,000 ducats to spare their city. This episode demonstrated the ruthless nature of warfare during the Italian Wars and the devastating impact such conflicts had on the cities caught in their path.

Sack of Brescia

The naval Battle of Saint-Mathieu occurred on 10 August 1512 during the War of the League of Cambrai, near Brest, France. The conflict involved an English fleet of 25 ships, commanded by Sir Edward Howard, and a Franco-Breton fleet of 22 ships, led by René de Clermont. The battle is notable for being one of the first instances of ships engaging with cannons through ports, although this tactic had a limited impact on the outcome. The largest vessels in each fleet, the English ship Regent, weighing 600 tons, and the French ship Marie-la-Cordelière, at 1,000 tons, were both destroyed in a catastrophic explosion that marked a pivotal moment in the engagement.Prior to the battle, the English fleet, having gained intelligence on the Franco-Breton movements, launched a surprise attack on the anchored enemy ships. The French and Breton forces, caught off guard, hastily cut their anchor cables and attempted to flee. Among the crew of the Marie-la-Cordelière were approximately 300 guests, including women, who were unable to disembark in the chaos. The two main ships, Marie-la-Cordelière and Petite Louise, engaged the English to cover the retreat of the remaining vessels. Under heavy fire, the Cordelière advanced towards the Regent, while the English ships Sovereign and Mary James attempted to provide support. The Cordelière's cannons inflicted significant damage, dismasting both the Sovereign and Mary James, rendering them unmanageable.As the battle intensified, Hervé de Portzmoguer, captain of the Cordelière, ordered an assault on the Regent, using grappling hooks to connect the two ships. A fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued on the deck of the Regent, which was bolstered by reinforcements from other English ships. The situation escalated when the Cordelière exploded, causing flames to engulf both vessels. The casualties were severe, with nearly all crew members lost; only 20 of the 1,250 Breton sailors and 60 of the 460 English sailors aboard the Regent survived. Following the battle, the English fleet captured or destroyed 32 French vessels over the next two days, leading to Sir Edward Howard's appointment as Lord High Admiral by King Henry VIII.

Battle of Saint-Mathieu

In the summer of 1513, England&rsquo;s King Henry VIII set his sights on France, eager to assert his claim to French lands and strengthen his alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. That year, as part of the larger conflict known as the War of the League of Cambrai, Henry launched a military campaign into northern France. His forces, backed by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, laid siege to the town of Th&eacute;rouanne. The French, unwilling to let the town fall without resistance, sent a cavalry force to relieve the siege. On August 16, near the village of Guinegate, the French cavalry clashed with the Anglo-Imperial army. However, rather than engaging in a prolonged fight, the French knights quickly realized they were outmatched and began a panicked retreat. Their hasty withdrawal, spurred on by fear of capture, earned the engagement its name&mdash;the *Battle of the Spurs*. The victory, though minor in terms of casualties or strategic gains, was a major morale boost for Henry VIII and his allies. Th&eacute;rouanne soon fell, followed by Tournai, further cementing England&rsquo;s foothold in France. Meanwhile, the French suffered a blow to their prestige, with their cavalry&rsquo;s flight becoming a source of embarrassment. Though the larger war continued, the *Battle of the Spurs* stood out as a symbolic triumph for Henry, reinforcing his image as a warrior king.

Battle of the Spurs

The siege of Dijon occurred from 8 to 13 September 1513, when Swiss forces besieged the French city during the War of the League of Cambrai. Following the French defeat at the Battle of Novara, various contingents of Swiss mercenaries pursued the retreating French army to Dijon. The Swiss, capitalizing on their momentum, initiated a siege that quickly intensified, leading to the city's encirclement. Over the course of the siege, the Swiss forces applied pressure on Dijon, employing their military experience and tactics to breach the city's defenses. After several days of sustained assault, the French garrison, unable to withstand the siege, capitulated on 13 September. The terms of surrender were negotiated, resulting in the Swiss securing significant concessions from France. The subsequent peace treaty mandated that France renounce its claims to Milan, Cremona, and Asti, alongside a war indemnity of 400,000 crowns to the Swiss. This outcome marked a notable success for the Swiss army and underscored the shifting power dynamics in the region during the Italian Wars.

Siege of Dijon

The Battle of Flodden, fought on 9 September 1513, was one of the bloodiest engagements between England and Scotland and marked a turning point in the tumultuous relationship between the two kingdoms. Taking place near Branxton in Northumberland, it was a pivotal moment in the War of the League of Cambrai, a larger European conflict. The battle ended in a crushing English victory, with profound consequences for Scotland. In the early 1500s, England and Scotland had briefly sought peace through the Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1502), sealed by the marriage of King James IV of Scotland to Margaret Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII. However, this fragile accord quickly unraveled due to cross-border raids and rising tensions. By 1513, England was deeply involved in the War of the League of Cambrai, with Henry VIII campaigning in France. In support of their French allies under the Auld Alliance, James IV declared war on England, hoping to draw English forces away from the continent. James began his campaign with an army of approximately 30,000-40,000 men, many equipped with long pikes provided by their French allies. His first moves were strategic successes: the Scots crossed the border into Northumberland, besieging and capturing the key English castles of Norham, Etal, and Ford by late August. However, delays at Ford Castle, rumored to involve James being distracted by its lady, Elizabeth Heron, allowed the English to regroup. Meanwhile, Henry VIII's absence left Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, in charge of English defenses. Surrey swiftly assembled an army of 20,000-26,000 men and marched north to meet the Scots. Despite being outnumbered, Surrey leveraged his army's discipline, experience, and superior tactics. By early September, James IV had positioned his army atop Flodden Edge, a strong defensive hill. When Surrey arrived, he sent a challenge to James, asking him to descend and fight on open ground. James, recalling a recent Scottish defeat on open terrain, refused, compelling Surrey to devise a bold flanking maneuver. On 8 September, Surrey led his forces on a circuitous march across the River Till, placing them behind the Scottish army. Caught off guard, James moved his troops to the lower Branxton Hill, relinquishing his advantageous position. This decision proved disastrous. The Scots initiated the battle with a cannonade, but their heavy artillery, poorly positioned and slow to reload, was ineffective compared to the lighter, faster English guns. The battle began in earnest when the Scottish left wing, led by Lord Home and Earl Huntly, advanced downhill and engaged the English right flank under Edmund Howard. Although initially successful, the Scots failed to press their advantage. Other Scottish pisions, including James's own center, encountered marshy ground that broke their formations, rendering their long pikes ineffective. The English, armed with shorter and more versatile bills, exploited the disarray to deadly effect. James IV led his troops in a desperate charge against Surrey's position, seeking to break the English center. The king fought valiantly, but his forces were overwhelmed in the brutal close-quarters combat. James was killed in the melee, his body found surrounded by his loyal guards, the "Flowers of the Forest." He became the last monarch of the British Isles to die in battle. The Scottish losses were catastrophic. Estimates suggest 10,000-17,000 Scots were killed, including much of the nobility and clergy. The English, by contrast, suffered around 1,500 casualties. The death of so many Scottish leaders created a political vacuum, plunging the nation into a crisis. James's infant son, James V, became king under the regency of his mother, Margaret Tudor, though the power struggle that followed weakened Scotland's position for years. The psychological impact of Flodden on Scotland was immense. Songs like "The Flowers of the Forest" commemorated the devastating loss. England, meanwhile, celebrated Surrey's victory, and he was rewarded with the restoration of the title Duke of Norfolk. Artifacts from the battle, including James IV's sword and coat, became symbols of English triumph. The Battle of Flodden marked the decline of the traditional Scottish reliance on large pike formations, a strategy ill-suited to the rugged terrain of Northumberland. It also signaled the end of an era, with historians sometimes viewing it as the close of the Middle Ages in Britain. Though it was a victory for England, Flodden did not end the conflicts between the two kingdoms. However, it underscored the deep costs of war and the fragility of alliances, shaping Anglo-Scottish relations for decades to come.

Battle of Flodden

The Siege of Urbino in January 1517 saw Papal forces successfully besiege and capture the city, which was held by Francesco Maria I della Rovere. This victory solidified Papal control over Urbino, demonstrating Pope Leo X's commitment to expanding and consolidating his territorial power in central Italy.

War of Urbino

The Siege of Mondolfo Castle occurred in 1516 during the Italian Wars, primarily involving the forces of the Kingdom of France and the Papal States. The French army, commanded by Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, sought to capture the strategically significant castle, which was held by a garrison loyal to Pope Leo X. The siege began in late April 1516, with the French forces numbering approximately 10,000 troops, including infantry and artillery units equipped with cannons. The defenders, led by a commander named Francesco Maria della Rovere, were significantly outnumbered, with around 2,000 soldiers stationed within the castle's fortifications.As the siege progressed, the French forces employed heavy artillery to breach the castle walls, launching a series of bombardments that intensified from May 1 to May 10. The defenders faced severe challenges, including dwindling supplies and the relentless assault from the French artillery. On May 11, after a sustained period of bombardment, the French forces successfully breached the walls, leading to a direct assault on the castle. The defenders, despite their valiant efforts, were overwhelmed by the superior numbers and firepower of the French troops.The siege concluded on May 12, 1516, with the French capturing Mondolfo Castle. The casualties for the defenders were significant, with many killed or taken prisoner, while the French forces suffered losses as well, though exact numbers are not documented. The successful capture of the castle marked a notable event in the ongoing conflict between the French and the Papal States, further solidifying French influence in the region during the Italian Wars.

Siege of the Mondolfo Castle

The Battle of Pamplona occurred on 20 May 1521, involving Spanish forces and Navarrese troops supported by the French. The Navarrese, led by former King Henry II of Navarre and French commander André de Foix, Lord of Lesparre, sought to reclaim Navarre after its conquest by Spain in 1512. Taking advantage of the weakened state of the Crown of Castile due to the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Navarrese initiated a general uprising throughout Navarre, including Pamplona, where the local population revolted against the Spanish garrison.On 15 May 1521, French troops, numbering approximately 12,000 infantry and equipped with heavy artillery, crossed the Pyrenees and captured Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, followed by Roncesvalles and Burguete. The Viceroy of Navarre, Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera, fled Pamplona on 17 May, leaving a small contingent of Castilian soldiers to defend the fortress. When the French forces arrived on 20 May, they bombarded the fortress for six hours, leading to its surrender. Among the defenders was Basque captain Íñigo López de Loyola, who sustained leg injuries during the bombardment. Following the capture, Francis Xavier's brothers, Miguel and Juan, took charge of the city.The battle resulted in relatively low casualties, with minor skirmishes leading to approximately 17 deaths among Basque forces on Mount Zengarrén and 4 more in Yesa. The Navarrese recovery of their kingdom was not marked by significant bloodshed, and there was no immediate retaliation against those who had collaborated with the Spanish. The swift reconquest of Pamplona and the surrounding areas set the stage for further military engagements in the region.

Battle of Pampeluna

The Siege of Logroño from May 25 to June 11, 1521, saw Spanish forces successfully defend the city against the French. This siege was a critical part of the Italian War of 1521-1526, and the Spanish victory helped to secure their northern frontiers and maintain control over Navarre.

Siege of Logroño

The Battle of Noáin, also known as the Battle of Esquiroz, occurred on 30 June 1521 and marked a significant confrontation during the Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre. The conflict arose after Ferdinand II of Aragon invaded Navarre in 1512, leading to its annexation to Castile by 1515. Following a failed reconquest attempt by John III in 1516, his son Henry II sought to reclaim the territory while the Castilian forces were preoccupied with the Revolt of the Comuneros. Henry II assembled a Franco-Navarrese army, led by General André de Foix, consisting of approximately 12,000 infantry, 800 mounted knights, and 29 artillery pieces. This force quickly captured most of Navarre, facing minimal resistance, except for a garrison in Pamplona led by Ignatius of Loyola, who was severely wounded during the defense. After abandoning the siege of Logroño on 11 June, the Franco-Navarrese army retreated to Navarre, where they encountered the Spanish forces near Pamplona.The Spanish army, commanded by Iñigo Fernández de Velasco, Constable of Castile, had grown to over 30,000 men. Despite being outnumbered three to one, the Franco-Navarrese launched an attack, initially achieving some success. However, the tide turned when Fadrique Enríquez, Admiral of Castile, maneuvered his cavalry around the Sierra de Erreniega to strike the Franco-Navarrese rear guard. The battle raged for several hours, resulting in heavy casualties for the Franco-Navarrese, estimated at around 5,000. Ultimately, the majority of their forces were compelled to surrender, and André de Foix was captured, sustaining injuries to his eyes. He was later released for a substantial ransom.The outcome of the Battle of Noáin solidified Navarre's status as part of the Kingdom of Spain. Following the battle, Spanish forces reconquered the remainder of Navarre with little resistance. Although Lower Navarre initially remained outside Spanish control, it faced intermittent occupation over the next seven years. In September 1521, Henry II, supported by Francis I of France, attempted to reclaim territory through a mixed Franco-Navarrese expedition targeting Baztan and Hondarribia, but these efforts did not yield lasting success. The region continued to be a point of international contention, experiencing sporadic conflicts for the next century, culminating in the reign of Henry III of Navarre.

Battle of Noáin

The siege of Mézières occurred in 1521 during the Italian War of 1521–1526, when an army of the Holy Roman Empire, led by Count Franz de Nassau-Sickingen, besieged the town, defended by French forces under Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, and Anne de Montmorency. The siege began on August 20, 1521, with Nassau's troops numbering approximately 35,000, while Bayard commanded a garrison of around 1,000 men. The French defenders took refuge in the citadel as the Imperial forces established their lines southeast of Manicourt. The siege lasted six weeks, characterized by an initial three weeks of intense bombardment, during which nearby villages such as Champeau and Manicourt were set ablaze.Facing a dire situation due to a lack of reinforcements and resources, Bayard resorted to deception to bolster the morale of his troops and mislead the besiegers. He crafted false letters intended for King Francis I, suggesting that Mézières was well-supplied and capable of enduring a prolonged siege, which led the Imperial forces to become disheartened. As a result, Nassau-Sickingen ultimately abandoned the siege, redirecting his forces to pillage the eastern part of Picardy, crossing the Meuse and devastating villages along the Sormonne in the Ardennes before retreating to Hainaut.The siege of Mézières exemplified the challenges faced by both sides during the conflict, with the French successfully delaying the Imperial advance, allowing Francis I time to regroup and strengthen his military position. The determined defense by Bayard and his men played a crucial role in preventing further incursions into French territory at that time.

Siege of Mézières

In November 1521, an Imperial army laid siege to the city of Tournai, which was under French control. The siege commenced on November 1, 1521, led by the forces of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Imperial forces, numbering approximately 10,000 troops, included a mix of Spanish and German soldiers, while the French defenders, commanded by the Chevalier de Bayard, were significantly outnumbered, with estimates of around 3,000 to 4,000 men. The siege was characterized by the use of artillery, with the Imperial forces employing cannons to breach the city walls. The defenders mounted a determined resistance, utilizing the city's fortifications to repel initial assaults.As the siege progressed, the Imperial forces intensified their bombardment, leading to significant damage to the city's defenses. By mid-November, the situation for the French garrison became increasingly dire due to dwindling supplies and the relentless pressure from the besieging forces. The Imperial troops executed a series of coordinated attacks, which ultimately forced the French to retreat to the inner citadel. Despite their efforts, the defenders could not hold out indefinitely against the superior numbers and firepower of the Imperial army.On November 22, 1521, after weeks of siege, Tournai fell to the Imperial forces. The capture of the city marked a significant victory for Charles V, as Tournai would remain under Habsburg control until it was taken by the French in 1795. The siege resulted in considerable casualties on both sides, although specific numbers remain unclear. The successful siege of Tournai exemplified the military strategies employed during the Italian Wars, highlighting the effectiveness of artillery in siege warfare and the challenges faced by defenders in fortified cities.

Siege of Tournai (1521)

At the outset of the war in 1521, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Pope Leo X jointly sought to reclaim the Duchy of Milan from French control. An army of Spanish, Imperial, and Papal forces under Prospero Colonna maneuvered through northern Italy, engaging the French in a cautious campaign. By late 1521, Colonna's army had forced the French commander Odet de Foix, Vicomte of Lautrec, to retreat to Milan after suffering desertions among his Swiss mercenaries. Colonna launched a surprise attack on Milan in November 1521, forcing Lautrec to withdraw to Cremona. By early 1522, much of Lombardy, including Pavia and Como, had fallen to Imperial forces, and Francesco II Sforza was installed in Milan with additional German reinforcements. Meanwhile, Lautrec regrouped, receiving 16,000 fresh Swiss pikemen, Venetian reinforcements, and French troops under Pedro Navarro and Thomas de Foix-Lescun. He also secured the services of Giovanni de' Medici's Black Bands, renowned Italian mercenaries. Lautrec attempted to draw Colonna into battle by threatening Milan's supply lines, but his Swiss mercenaries, angered by unpaid wages, demanded an immediate attack. Pressured by their ultimatum, Lautrec advanced on Colonna's entrenched position at Bicocca. Colonna had established his army in the manor park of Bicocca, north of Milan. The park was naturally defensible, with marshland to the west, a sunken road to the north reinforced with an earthen rampart, and Imperial artillery covering the approaches. Behind the rampart stood ranks of Spanish arquebusiers under Fernando d'Avalos, supported by German landsknechts led by Georg von Frundsberg. At dawn on 27 April, Lautrec launched his attack. His forces were organized into two Swiss columns, supported by artillery and cavalry, while Lescun's cavalry aimed to outflank the Imperial position by seizing a bridge south of the park. The Swiss, numbering about 8,000 in each column, ignored Lautrec's orders to wait for artillery bombardment and advanced directly on Colonna's fortified lines. As they approached, they came under devastating fire from Imperial artillery. When they reached the sunken road and earthen rampart, they were met with concentrated volleys from the arquebusiers, who fired in successive ranks. Despite suffering heavy losses, the Swiss attempted multiple assaults, but their long pikes were ineffective against the rampart. Any who scaled the defenses were met by the landsknechts, resulting in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Within half an hour, the Swiss were forced to retreat, leaving 3,000 dead, including their captains Arnold Winkelried and Albert von Stein. While the Swiss were repulsed, Lescun's cavalry successfully crossed the bridge south of the park and entered the Imperial camp. However, Colonna countered by dispatching cavalry under Antonio de Leyva and infantry reinforcements, forcing Lescun to retreat. The French cavalry rejoined Lautrec's main force, but the battle was effectively lost. The defeat at Bicocca shattered French hopes in Lombardy. The Swiss mercenaries, demoralized and unpaid, abandoned Lautrec and returned to their cantons. Lautrec, now severely weakened, retreated eastward into Venetian territory and left for France. Colonna and d'Avalos proceeded to capture Genoa, and by the end of the year, the French had been driven out of northern Italy. The battle also had far-reaching consequences for military strategy. The Swiss, whose push of pike tactics had once been dominant, were shown to be ineffective against entrenched arquebusiers. The arquebus, combined with field fortifications, rendered frontal assaults too costly to attempt again during the Italian Wars. The engagement also underscored the importance of defensive doctrines and the integration of pike and shot units, which would dominate European warfare for the next century. In the Spanish language, the word bicoca&mdash;meaning a "bargain" or "easy gain"&mdash;entered the lexicon as a reflection of the ease with which the Imperial forces repelled the Swiss attack.

Battle of Bicocca

From 20 to 30 May 1522, the Siege of Genoa unfolded as an important military engagement during the Italian Wars. The siege was conducted by an army of the Holy Roman Empire, led by General Fernando d'Avalos and the Italian condottiero Prospero Colonna, against the French forces defending the city. The Imperial forces, numbering approximately 15,000 troops, included Spanish and Italian soldiers, while the French garrison, commanded by the Duke of Nemours, consisted of around 8,000 defenders. The siege began after the French refused to surrender, prompting the Imperial troops to encircle the city and cut off its supplies.Throughout the siege, the Imperial forces employed artillery to bombard the city's fortifications, which were already weakened from previous conflicts. The French defenders, despite their efforts to hold the city, faced increasing shortages of food and ammunition. On 30 May 1522, after ten days of intense fighting and bombardment, the Imperial troops breached the city walls. The fall of Genoa allowed the Imperial forces to loot the city, as they had been permitted to do once the French garrison capitulated. The siege resulted in significant casualties, although exact numbers remain unclear, with both sides suffering losses during the conflict.The successful siege of Genoa marked a strategic victory for the Holy Roman Empire and its allies, further consolidating their influence in northern Italy. The capture of the city was part of a broader campaign against French interests in the region, contributing to the ongoing power struggles that characterized the Italian Wars during this period.

Siege of Genoa (1522)

The Battle of San Marcial occurred on 30 September 1522, during the Italian Wars, primarily involving Spanish forces led by the Duke of Alba, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, and French troops commanded by the Constable of France, Anne de Montmorency. The battle took place near the town of San Marcial, located in the Basque region of Spain. The Spanish army consisted of approximately 10,000 men, including infantry and cavalry, while the French forces numbered around 8,000. The engagement was marked by the strategic use of terrain, with the Spanish positioned on higher ground, allowing them to effectively utilize their artillery and infantry formations.As the battle commenced, the Spanish forces launched a coordinated attack against the French, who were attempting to advance through the narrow passes. The Spanish artillery opened fire, inflicting significant casualties on the French ranks. The French attempted to counterattack but faced difficulties due to the Spanish defensive positions and the effective use of pike formations. The fighting was intense, with both sides suffering losses; however, the Spanish forces maintained their composure and continued to press the attack. The French, unable to break through the Spanish lines, began to retreat, leading to a decisive Spanish victory.The aftermath of the battle saw the French forces sustain heavy casualties, with estimates suggesting around 3,000 men lost, while Spanish casualties were significantly lower, estimated at about 1,000. The victory at San Marcial solidified Spanish control in the region and demonstrated the effectiveness of their military tactics during the Italian Wars. The battle was a pivotal moment in the ongoing conflict between Spain and France, influencing subsequent military engagements in the Italian theater.

Battle of San Marcial (1522)

The Battle of the Sesia occurred on 30 April 1524 near the Sesia River in north-western Italy, where Imperial-Spanish forces led by Don Carlos de Lannoy and Fernando d'Avalos decisively defeated the French army commanded by Admiral Guillaume Gouffier, Lord of Bonnivet, and the Comte de Saint-Pol. Prior to the battle, the French army had advanced through Piedmont, amassing approximately 36,000 infantry and 2,200 men-at-arms, bolstered by 18,000 Swiss mercenaries. In contrast, the Imperial-Spanish forces, under the command of Prospero Colonna until his death in December 1523, numbered around 15,000 infantry, 800 light horse, and 800 men-at-arms, later reinforced by additional troops from Naples and Landsknechts.As the French began their retreat across the Sesia River on 29 April, Bonnivet commanded the rearguard to cover the operation. On 30 April, the battle commenced when Lannoy's forces, including light cavalry and arquebusiers, engaged the French. The terrain, characterized by boggy ground, hindered the French heavy cavalry and Swiss infantry, while the more mobile arquebusiers maintained a continuous fire from the flanks and rear. Despite a fierce pike charge from the Swiss, the arquebusiers evaded direct confrontation, allowing them to regroup and continue their fire. Bonnivet attempted a heavy cavalry charge but was wounded, and as the day progressed, the French forces were unable to maintain their position, ultimately retreating in disarray towards the Alps.The battle was notable for its tactical significance, as it showcased the effective use of arquebusiers in open terrain without the protection of fortifications, contrasting with previous engagements where they relied on defensive positions. The coordination between the arquebusiers and the pike formations hinted at the evolving nature of infantry warfare, marking a shift from reliance on shock troops to a more integrated approach combining firepower and protection. The outcome of the battle contributed to the ongoing dynamics of the Italian Wars, influencing subsequent military strategies.

Battle of the Sesia (1524)

From August to September 1524, the Siege of Marseille was conducted by an Imperial army led by Charles de Bourbon and Fernando de Avalos during the Italian Wars. The siege aimed to capture the strategically significant port city, which was defended by French forces. The Imperial army, bolstered by Bourbon's recent defection from the French side, sought to exploit the city's vulnerabilities. Despite the Imperial troops' initial successes in looting the surrounding countryside, they faced strong resistance from the French defenders, who were determined to hold the city.Throughout the siege, the Imperial forces employed artillery and attempted to breach the city's fortifications. However, the defenders managed to repel several assaults, maintaining control over Marseille. As the siege progressed, the French received reinforcements, which bolstered their defenses and morale. The situation for the besieging forces became increasingly precarious as supplies dwindled and the prospect of a prolonged engagement loomed.By early September 1524, the arrival of additional French troops prompted Avalos to reassess the situation. Concluding that the siege could not be sustained without risking significant losses, he ordered a withdrawal from Marseille. The siege ultimately failed to achieve its objective, and the Imperial forces retreated, leaving the city in French hands.

Siege of Marseille (1524)

In late 1524, Francis led a large French army across the Alps into northern Italy, successfully taking Milan and advancing toward Pavia. The city, defended by Antonio de Leyva with a garrison of about 9,000 men, resisted despite being encircled by the French. Francis attempted an assault in November but was repelled, leading to a prolonged siege. Meanwhile, Charles V's forces under Charles de Lannoy and Fernando d'Avalos, Marquis of Pescara, regrouped. Reinforced by Georg Frundsberg&rsquo;s German landsknechts in early 1525, the Imperial forces, numbering around 20,000, prepared to relieve Pavia. Francis, confident in his superior numbers of approximately 30,000 men and substantial artillery, camped in the walled Visconti Park near Pavia. His forces included the Black Bands of Giovanni de' Medici and contingents of Swiss and French infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Despite some desertions and the absence of reinforcements sent south to aid Pope Clement VII, Francis maintained his position, believing the Imperial army would retreat. On the night of February 23, the Imperial forces launched a surprise attack. Under cover of darkness, they breached the walls of the Visconti Park near the village of San Genesio. By dawn, thousands of Imperial arquebusiers under Alfonso d'Avalos had entered the park, targeting the French positions around Mirabello Castle. Francis, alerted by skirmishes at the breach, mounted a bold charge with his gendarmerie, scattering the Spanish cavalry. However, this advance left the French king and his knights isolated from their infantry and artillery, exposing them to counterattacks. Imperial pikemen and arquebusiers surrounded the French cavalry, systematically cutting them down in the confined spaces of the park. Francis's forces, including the Black Bands and Swiss infantry, attempted to regroup but were overwhelmed by the combined firepower and coordination of the Imperial troops. In the chaos, Imperial commander Antonio de Leyva led a sortie from Pavia, crushing the French siege lines and scattering the remaining Swiss forces. The French infantry, deprived of support, broke under the relentless assault by Frundsberg&rsquo;s landsknechts and the Spanish. By mid-morning, the French army was in full retreat. The battle was a disaster for the French. The French king, Francis I, was captured after his horse was killed under him, and he was taken prisoner by a mix of Spanish and German troops. Thousands of French soldiers, including many prominent nobles, were killed or captured, among them La Palice, Richard de la Pole, and Thomas de Foix. The French forces remaining in Milan retreated across the Alps, leaving the Duchy firmly in Imperial hands. Francis was imprisoned in Madrid and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madrid in 1526, renouncing claims to Milan, Burgundy, and Flanders. Though he later repudiated the treaty, his defeat at Pavia marked the beginning of a significant shift in power in Europe. The battle underscored the growing importance of firearms and disciplined infantry over traditional cavalry and set the stage for the protracted Habsburg-Valois rivalry that would dominate European politics for decades.

Battle of Pavia

The Battle of Camollia occurred on 19 September 1526 during the Italian Wars, primarily involving the forces of the Republic of Florence and the Spanish Empire. The Florentine army, commanded by Francesco Vettori, consisted of approximately 6,000 troops, including infantry and cavalry. The Spanish forces, led by the Duke of Bourbon, numbered around 8,000 soldiers, bolstered by a contingent of mercenaries. The battle took place near the town of Camollia, situated close to Siena, which was a strategic location for controlling the region.As the battle commenced, the Spanish forces advanced with a well-coordinated attack, utilizing their superior numbers to encircle the Florentine troops. The Florentines, despite their valiant efforts, struggled to maintain their defensive positions against the onslaught. The engagement was marked by intense fighting, with both sides suffering significant casualties. The exact number of casualties remains unclear, but it is estimated that the Florentines faced heavy losses, leading to a breakdown in their defensive lines.Ultimately, the battle concluded with a decisive victory for the Spanish forces, which allowed them to exert greater influence over Tuscany. The defeat of the Florentine army at Camollia was a critical moment in the ongoing conflict, as it underscored the challenges faced by the Republic of Florence in maintaining its autonomy amidst the larger power struggles of the Italian Wars.

Battle of Camollia (1526)

The Battle of Governolo occurred on 29 May 1526, during the Italian Wars, as part of the conflict between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of France. The battle was fought near the town of Governolo, located in northern Italy, where the Imperial army, commanded by the Duke of Bourbon, faced off against the French forces led by the Constable of France, Anne de Montmorency. The Imperial army consisted of approximately 10,000 troops, including a contingent of Spanish soldiers, while the French forces numbered around 12,000, bolstered by a mix of infantry and cavalry.As the battle commenced, the French forces attempted to leverage their numerical superiority and launched an aggressive assault on the Imperial positions. The fighting was intense, with both sides employing artillery, including cannons and field guns. The terrain played a significant role, as the Imperial troops utilized the natural defenses of the area to their advantage. Despite their initial advantage, the French forces struggled to maintain cohesion under the pressure of the Imperial counterattacks. The Duke of Bourbon's forces executed a series of tactical maneuvers that ultimately turned the tide of the battle in favor of the Imperial army.The battle concluded with significant casualties on both sides, although exact numbers remain unclear. The French suffered heavy losses, with estimates suggesting around 3,000 casualties, while the Imperial forces experienced approximately 1,500 casualties. The outcome of the Battle of Governolo marked a crucial moment in the ongoing conflict, demonstrating the effectiveness of the Imperial tactics and the challenges faced by the French forces in maintaining their dominance in the region.

Battle of Governolo (1526)

The sack of Pavia occurred in October 1527 during the War of the League of Cognac. The city was defended by Count Ludovico Barbiano di Belgiojoso, who commanded a garrison of 2,000 Italian infantry, 30 men-at-arms, and 100 light cavalry. The fortifications of Pavia had not been repaired since the previous battle in 1525, leaving the city vulnerable. The attacking forces were led by Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec, and included a French army, a Venetian contingent under Giano Campofregoso, and Lombard troops commanded by Duke Francesco Sforza of Milan. After capturing Alessandria on 12 September 1527, Lautrec's forces advanced towards Pavia, circumventing the main imperial army led by Antonio de Leyva stationed in Milan, and established their camp near the Pavian Charterhouse by the end of September.As the siege commenced, the attackers utilized artillery to bombard the Visconti Castle, while the defenders employed moats and a counterscarp to resist the assault. After several days of bombardment, on 4–5 October, Belgiojoso capitulated, agreeing to surrender the city. Although Lautrec aimed to prevent a sack, his troops, driven by a desire for retribution for the earlier capture of King Francis I at Pavia, unleashed chaos upon the city. Reports indicate that the soldiers engaged in widespread looting and violence, with accounts noting that approximately 15,000 individuals were killed and around 200 houses were set ablaze during the sack.The aftermath of the sack saw significant devastation in Pavia, with the local population suffering greatly from the violence and destruction wrought by the invading forces. The events of this siege underscored the volatility of the Italian Wars and the intense rivalries among the European powers involved.

Sack of Pavia (1527)

After early victories in northern Italy and Emilia, the French army, under the command of Marshal Odet de Foix, moved southward, leaving Rome vulnerable to the advancing Imperial forces. The confrontation between the French and Charles V's troops now shifted towards the Kingdom of Naples, where both sides prepared for a decisive engagement. Near Lucera in Puglia, the Spanish forces, led by Philibert of Chalon, Prince of Orange, made contact with the advancing French army. A great battle seemed imminent, but instead of engaging, the Spanish forces withdrew to Naples, leaving a strategic garrison in Melfi under the command of Prince Giovanni Caracciolo. Determined not to leave this stronghold behind, the French, now reinforced by Orazio Baglioni's feared Black Bands, decided to capture Melfi before marching on Naples. The plan was heavily influenced by Pietro Navarro, a former Spanish commander who had long served the French crown. On March 22, 1528, the French launched their assault. The attackers-composed of Biscayans, Gascons, and the Italian mercenaries of the Black Bands-struck fiercely. Navarro took command of operations, directing the French artillery to batter the city's defenses. Despite fierce resistance, the artillery bombardment took a devastating toll on the defenders. Fires spread along the walls, and though the defenders repelled the first assault, the French eventually breached the fortifications. The battle was brief but brutal. Estimates suggest that around 500 men were killed, including 60 from the Black Bands, with some reportedly dying from friendly fire due to Navarro's relentless artillery barrage. Once inside the city, the French exacted a terrible revenge. According to contemporary accounts, they slaughtered civilians indiscriminately-men, women, and children alike-before plundering the town. Venetian chronicler Marin Sanudo vividly describes the massacre in his _Diaries_, and both Francesco Guicciardini and Benedetto Varchi, writing shortly after, confirm the extreme violence, estimating the death toll between 3,000 and 4,000. As the walls fell, Caracciolo and his surviving troops retreated into Melfi's castle. Though he ultimately surrendered in exchange for his life, his men were executed. The city, left in ruins, would suffer long-term economic devastation. In the years that followed, Imperial authorities granted Melfi special privileges, including tax exemptions, in an attempt to encourage its repopulation. The fall of Melfi was a turning point in the war, but not in favor of the French. Their advance towards Naples faltered as plague ravaged their forces, claiming the life of Marshal Lautrec himself. The Imperial army, strengthened by Genoese naval support under Andrea Doria, held firm. The siege of Naples ended in disaster for the French, leading to their final expulsion from southern Italy. The key figures of the Melfi assault all met grim fates. Pietro Navarro, after the collapse of the French siege, was captured by his former Spanish allies, imprisoned in Castel dell'Ovo, and hanged. Orazio Baglioni, another key commander, was ambushed near the Sebeto River by Imperial Landsknechts and killed by pike thrusts. In the end, Melfi became both a symbol of French brutality and a key moment in the struggle for Italy-one that ultimately led to Habsburg dominance over the peninsula.

Siege of Melfi

In April 1528, the French commander Odet de Foix initiated the siege of Naples during the War of the League of Cognac, while Filippino Doria organized a naval blockade. The French camp was located on a hill that would later be known as Poggioreale. By the end of April, the governor of Naples, Hugo of Moncada, was killed by arquebusiers during an attempt to break the blockade and reach the Gulf of Salerno. His death led to the capture of Alfonso III d'Avalos, who played a significant role in subsequent negotiations regarding Doria's defection. Following Moncada's death, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, appointed Philibert of Chalon as the new governor of Naples.On 22 May, Orazio di Giampaolo Baglioni and his Black Bands were ambushed by Landsknechts near the river Sebeto, resulting in Baglioni's death. By 4 July, Doria lifted the naval blockade after Genoa aligned with the Holy Roman Empire. During the summer, de Foix attempted to starve the garrison by destroying the Bolla Aqueduct, which inadvertently created marshy conditions that contributed to a deadly epidemic among the French troops. Odet de Foix succumbed to illness on 15 August, and command passed to Louis, Count of Vaudémont, who also died shortly thereafter, leading to Michele Antonio di Saluzzo taking command of the French forces.By the end of August, the French abandoned the siege and attempted to retreat to Aversa. However, they were intercepted by an Imperial force, resulting in the capture of Charles of Navarre and the military engineer Pietro Navarro. Navarro was later imprisoned in Castel Nuovo, where he was executed later that month.

Siege of Naples (1528)

The Battle of Capo d'Orso occurred on April 28, 1528, from 5:00 PM to 9:00 PM, during the War of the League of Cognac. A French fleet, commanded by Filippino Doria, engaged the Spanish fleet of the Kingdom of Naples, which was under the command of Alfonso d'Avalos. The Spanish fleet consisted of six large galleys and was outnumbered by the French, who had eight vessels. The Spanish fleet attempted to break the French blockade of Naples, which had been under siege since mid-April. The Spanish forces, bolstered by approximately 700 veteran soldiers and 200 German Landsknechts, set sail from Naples in the early hours of April 28, aiming to catch the French fleet unprepared. However, delays caused by leisure activities allowed the French reinforcements to arrive just before the battle commenced.At approximately 5:00 PM, the battle began with the French fleet opening fire on the Spanish galleys. The Spanish flagship suffered significant casualties, including the loss of 32 soldiers from a single cannon shot. Despite initial successes in boarding several French vessels, the tide turned when three French ships that had previously broken formation returned to the fray. The French counter-attack, led by Nicolò Lomellino, targeted the Spanish flagship, resulting in heavy casualties among the Spanish officers, including the death of don Hugo de Moncada. The French, despite being outnumbered, managed to rally their forces, and Filippino Doria freed his rowers, promising them freedom in exchange for their assistance. This maneuver shifted the balance of the battle, leading to the surrender of the remaining Spanish galleys.By 9:00 PM, the battle concluded with the complete destruction of the Spanish squadron. The Spanish forces suffered heavy losses, with estimates of 700 to 800 men killed and many captured, including high-ranking officers. The French also incurred significant casualties, with around 500 men lost, including a large portion of the Gascon musketeers. The battle demonstrated the tactical superiority of the French galleys and secured French naval dominance in the Gulf of Salerno, further tightening the blockade of Naples. The aftermath of the battle saw the Spanish unable to break the blockade, leading to a prolonged siege and eventual famine within the city.

Battle of Capo d'Orso

In 1528, amid the War of the League of Cognac, Marshal Odet de Foix, Count of Lautrec, led a French campaign to seize southern Italy from the forces of Emperor Charles V. His goal was to secure Naples for King Francis I of France, and as part of this strategy, he ordered the capture of Catanzaro, a key stronghold in Calabria. Lautrec entrusted the task to Simone Tebaldi and Francesco di Loria, who marched south with an army of 35,000 men, composed of French troops, Italian mercenaries, and local nobles from Calabria and Puglia who had sided with the French. Opposing them was Pedro de Alarc&oacute;n y Mendoza, the Viceroy of Calabria Ulteriore, who, despite commanding a significantly smaller force of 11,000 men, prepared to defend the province. He concentrated his forces in Catanzaro, fortifying the city and rallying local resistance. The French laid siege to Catanzaro for weeks, believing their numerical superiority would soon bring victory. However, the defenders, vastly outnumbered, mounted a determined and heroic resistance. The siege dragged on without success for the French, and by August 28, 1528, they were forced to abandon their efforts. The Imperial forces emerged victorious, securing Catanzaro for Charles V. In recognition of their loyalty and bravery, Charles V granted Catanzaro significant privileges. The city was awarded the right to bear the imperial eagle as its symbol, with a shield representing its three hills, topped by a crown. The eagle held a blue ribbon in its beak inscribed with the motto "Sanguinis Effusione" (By the Shedding of Blood), commemorating the defenders&rsquo; sacrifices.

Siege of Catanzaro

The Battle of Aversa in August 1528 was a significant clash where Imperial forces defeated the French. The battle was part of the ongoing conflict between Charles V and the French, and the Imperial victory further solidified their control over southern Italy.

Battle of Aversa

By the end of 1528, the French-Venetian alliance still held a few key port cities in Puglia, including Barletta, Trani, and Monopoli. These cities, though isolated by Imperial forces on land, relied on Venetian naval supremacy in the Adriatic for supplies. However, harsh winter storms, famine, and financial troubles left their defenses weakened, as unpaid mercenaries threatened mutiny. Amid these conditions, Alfonso d'Avalos, Marquis of Vasto, descended into Puglia in December 1528, leading an Imperial army determined to reclaim the region. His campaign was viewed by some as a personal ambition rather than a strategic necessity for Charles V's empire. On February 3, 1529, in Pietramontecorvino, d'Avalos, Ferrante Gonzaga, and Count Borrello convened a war council, likely deciding to besiege Monopoli, despite opposition within the Imperial ranks. The Venetian commanders, Renzo degli Anguillara in Barletta, Vittore Soranzo in Trani, and Andrea Gritti in Monopoli, struggled to maintain order amid shortages. Despite these difficulties, in late December, Venetian forces led by Orazio da Carpegna and Giulio da Montebello managed to ambush Imperial troops near Fasano and successfully defended a shipwrecked galley near Mola di Bari, capturing Giulio di Acquaviva and forty of his men. By early March 1529, d'Avalos and his forces, including Spanish and Italian mercenaries, gathered near Conversano, preparing for the siege. However, his troops-poorly supplied and unpaid for months-were already on the verge of rebellion. Spanish soldiers demanded six months' back pay, while Italians received nothing, worsening internal pisions. On March 15, 1529, Imperial forces encamped south of Monopoli, and the Venetians, led by Giovanni Vitturi and Camillo Orsini, rushed to reinforce the city's defenses. The Venetian fleet, commanded by Giovanni Contarini, played a crucial role, supplying men and artillery. Inside Monopoli, 2,350 defenders, including local militias, prepared for the oncoming assault. By March 19, Imperial artillery bombarded the port area, but Venetian counterfire with falconets inflicted heavy casualties. The attackers dug trenches toward the city walls, but rocky terrain and flooding slowed progress. The Venetians discovered a hidden tunnel inside a local noble's house, meant to be used by Spanish infiltrators, and sealed it. On March 25, in a daring sortie, Venetian forces attacked the Imperial trenches, killing 500 soldiers and destroying enemy positions with firebombs. The failed attack shook d'Avalos, who, between April 3 and 9, reportedly did not leave his tent, discouraged by the lack of progress. Despite reinforcements, d'Avalos' situation worsened. His Italian mercenaries, unpaid and starving, began deserting. Maramaldo's troops, meant to reinforce the siege, instead turned to plundering the countryside, worsening local hostility toward the Spaniards. On May 2, the Venetians launched another successful raid, destroying a month's worth of enemy fortifications. By May 28, 1529, d'Avalos abandoned the siege and retreated to Conversano, then Naples. His failure reinforced the Franco-Venetian grip on Puglia, dealing a blow to Imperial ambitions in southern Italy. Venetian rule in Monopoli remained secure, but unrest soon followed. With supplies still scarce and wages unpaid, riots broke out among the defenders. Two warehouses were looted before Orsini hanged two ringleaders and exiled troublemakers to Barletta. Historian Francesco Guicciardini later summarized the siege, emphasizing how Imperial miscalculations and Monopoli's determined defense led to d'Avalos' costly failure. Despite initial confidence, he lost over 1,500 men and three cannons, ultimately proving that Monopoli was far more resilient than he had expected.

Siege of Monopoli

The Battle of Landriano occurred on 21 June 1529, involving the French army led by Comte de Saint-Pol and the Imperial–Spanish forces commanded by Don Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova. The confrontation took place in Lombardy, near Pavia, during the War of the League of Cognac. The French army, which had been stationed in the region, faced a decisive defeat as the Spanish troops effectively intercepted and neutralized the French reserves. The battle resulted in the destruction of the French forces, significantly diminishing King Francis I's aspirations to regain control over Italy.During the engagement, the French commander, Comte de Saint-Pol, was captured, further consolidating Imperial control over the Duchy of Milan. The French suffered substantial casualties, although specific numbers are not documented. The defeat at Landriano marked a critical turning point in the conflict, effectively ending Francis I's ambitions in the region. Following the battle, the Imperial–Spanish army, under the leadership of Philibert of Châlon, Prince of Orange, continued military operations against the Republic of Florence, ultimately leading to the installation of Alessandro de' Medici as its ruler.The battle's outcome solidified the Emperor's dominance in northern Italy, and while hostilities persisted, the French were no longer a significant participant in the conflict. The strategic implications of Landriano were profound, as they set the stage for subsequent diplomatic negotiations between Francis I and Charles V, culminating in the Treaty of Cambrai in August 1529.

Battle of Landriano

The Battle of Gavinana occurred on 3 August 1530 during the War of the League of Cognac, involving the city of Florence and the forces of the Holy Roman Empire. The Imperial army, commanded by Philibert of Châlon, Prince of Orange, initially faced a determined defense from the Florentine troops led by Francesco Ferruccio. Despite being outnumbered, the Florentines managed to push back the Imperial forces, inflicting significant casualties. However, the tide of battle shifted dramatically with the arrival of reinforcements under Fabrizio Maramaldo, who brought an additional 2,000 troops to the fray.As the battle progressed, the Florentine forces began to falter. Philibert of Châlon was fatally wounded by two arquebus shots, which marked a critical moment in the conflict. Following this, the Imperial forces, bolstered by Maramaldo's troops, regained the upper hand. Francesco Ferruccio was ultimately captured during the fighting. After sustaining injuries, he was executed by Maramaldo, who reportedly took personal responsibility for the act. Ferruccio's last words, 'tu uccidi un uomo morto' (you are killing a dead man), became emblematic of his legacy, contributing to his status as a significant figure in the Italian Risorgimento.Maramaldo's actions during the battle led to a lasting infamy, with his name becoming synonymous with cowardice and treachery in Italian culture. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the Imperial forces, significantly impacting the political landscape of Italy during this period.

Battle of Gavinana

The uneasy peace between Charles V and Francis I did little to resolve their long-standing rivalry. The conclusion of the Eighth Italian War had left both rulers dissatisfied-Francis still dreamed of Milan, while Charles demanded that the French king honor the Treaty of Madrid, which Francis had signed under duress during his captivity in Spain after the Sixth Italian War. Their ambitions clashed over Burgundy, Naples, and Flanders, and neither was willing to back down. By 1542, the fragile peace collapsed once more, and Francis declared war, this time with a new ally: the Duke of Cleves, who was locked in a dispute with Charles over the Duchy of Guelders. As war resumed, Francis moved quickly, raising five armies to strike on multiple fronts. His forces advanced into Luxembourg, Flanders, and Piedmont, while another army moved toward the Spanish border. Meanwhile, his ally, Martin van Rossum, the Marshal of Guelders, led an army of 15,000 men into Brabant, sweeping across the countryside with a campaign of ruthless pillaging. Towns and villages fell, some plundered multiple times as Imperial forces struggled to react. Among the villages that found themselves in the path of van Rossum's army was Corroy, where a small castle garrison, led by Etienne Cousin, prepared to resist. With only a hundred men, including desperate villagers who had taken refuge behind the castle walls, Cousin held out for weeks, despite the overwhelming numbers against him. But van Rossum's army was relentless. The castle's wooden gate was set aflame, and once the enemy breached the defenses, the entire garrison was slaughtered. Cousin himself fell in battle in August 1542, his bravery later remembered by his brother, Gilbert Cousin, who mourned, "He was, I swear, a man worthy of a better fate." The following year, Charles V resolved to avenge the loss and teach the Duke of Cleves a lesson. With the full force of the Imperial army, he invaded Cleves' territory, pushing back the duke's forces with ease. His campaign reached Duren, a key city in Cleves' domain, and Imperial troops stormed and sacked it with brutal efficiency. The Duke of Cleves, facing the might of the Emperor alone, had no choice but to surrender. To save his lands, he renounced his alliance with Francis I, delivering a crushing blow to the French war effort. The fall of Duren ended the Duke of Cleves' ambitions and reaffirmed Charles V's dominance in the Low Countries. Though the larger war between France and the Holy Roman Empire continued for several more years, the events in Brabant and Cleves had shown once again that while Francis I could stir conflict, Charles V had the power to retaliate with devastating force.

Siege of Corroy

The Siege of Perpignan commenced in 1542 when Henry, Dauphin of France, led a French army of approximately 40,000 men to besiege the city, which was fortified by a Spanish garrison under the command of Captains Cervellón and Machichaco. The French aimed to capture Perpignan quickly, believing it would be an easy conquest. However, the defenders mounted a vigorous resistance, launching a surprise attack that resulted in the destruction of much of the French heavy artillery, which had begun to breach the city walls. This setback significantly weakened the French position and morale.As the siege progressed, the French faced numerous hardships, including a lack of expected support from their Ottoman allies. The situation changed when Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, arrived with a Spanish relief force, compelling the French to abandon the siege. The French suffered heavy casualties, including dead, sick, and wounded, marking the siege as a costly defeat for Francis I of France. Notably, during the siege, the French barber-surgeon Ambroise Paré developed a new surgical technique while treating Maréchal de Brissac, who had been shot in the shoulder. Paré's innovative approach allowed for the successful extraction of the bullet by positioning the patient as he had been at the time of injury.The siege concluded with the withdrawal of the French forces, who were unable to secure a decisive victory. The failure at Perpignan was emblematic of the broader challenges faced by Francis I during the French offensive of 1542, as his military campaigns across various fronts yielded limited success against the forces of Charles V.

Siege of Perpignan (1542)

The Battle of Muros Bay occurred on 25 July 1543 during the Italian War of 1542–1546, involving a confrontation between the French fleet, commanded by Jean de Clamorgan, and the Spanish fleet led by Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Viso. The French fleet consisted of 25 ships, while the Spanish had 16 larger vessels. The battle commenced as Álvaro de Bazán launched a surprise attack on the anchored French fleet at Muros, which had previously looted coastal villages and held the city of Muros at ransom. The Spanish fleet had recently received reinforcements, allowing them to engage effectively despite being outnumbered.As the battle unfolded, Álvaro de Bazán focused on Clamorgan's flagship and the nearby corsair Hallebarde. Utilizing the element of surprise and the superior size of his ships, he successfully rammed and sank Clamorgan's flagship, significantly impacting French morale. Following this, the Spanish forces boarded and captured the Hallebarde, further crippling the French naval capabilities. The engagement lasted nearly two hours, characterized by fierce fighting, and concluded with a decisive Spanish victory.The aftermath of the battle saw the French fleet suffer catastrophic losses, with only one of the 25 ships managing to escape. Spanish casualties numbered around 800, while French losses exceeded 3,000. This victory effectively neutralized the French threat to the northern Spanish coast and allowed Spain to assert control over the Cantabrian Sea.

Battle of Muros Bay

The Siege of Nice took place from 6 to 22 August 1543 during the Italian War of 1542–46, involving a coalition of French and Ottoman forces against the city, which was under the control of Charles III, Duke of Savoy, an ally of Charles V. The siege was initiated after a naval collaboration between France, led by François de Bourbon, and the Ottoman Empire, commanded by Hayreddin Barbarossa. The Ottoman fleet, consisting of 110 galleys, departed from the Sea of Marmara in mid-May 1543 and arrived at Île Saint-Honorat on 5 July. Following a series of maneuvers, the combined Franco-Ottoman fleet set sail from Marseille on 5 August, landing at Villefranche, approximately 6 kilometers from Nice, which they captured and destroyed.On 6 August, the siege commenced with the combined forces of 110 Ottoman galleys and 50 French galleys attacking Nice. The defenders mounted a strong resistance, leading to significant fighting, particularly on 15 August. Despite the fierce defense, the city ultimately surrendered on 22 August. The French forces prevented the Ottomans from sacking the city, but they were unable to capture the Château de Cimiez due to a lack of gunpowder supplies. A subsequent attempt to take the castle on 8 September was thwarted when news arrived of an approaching Imperial relief force, prompting a retreat by the besieging forces.As the siege concluded, Barbarossa withdrew his fleet just before the arrival of a Spanish-Italian relief fleet led by Andrea Doria, which bombarded French positions in Villefranche. Doria's forces managed to land troops under Alfonso D'Avalos, but suffered losses, including four galleys. Accounts vary regarding the fate of Nice after the siege, with some suggesting that Barbarossa's forces plundered the city before leaving, while others attribute the destruction to the French. The siege highlighted the complexities of Franco-Ottoman relations and the challenges faced by the besieging forces, particularly in terms of logistics and coordination.

Siege of Nice

The siege of Landrecies commenced in 1543 during the Italian War of 1542–46, as Imperial and English forces, numbering approximately 10,000 troops, laid siege to the town. Commanded by Ferrante Gonzaga, the besieging forces aimed to capture the strategically significant location held by the French. The defenders, led by Martin du Bellay, were well-prepared and fortified, with a garrison of around 2,000 soldiers, including infantry and artillery units. The siege began in late May and involved a series of assaults and skirmishes as Gonzaga sought to breach the town's defenses.Throughout June, the Imperial and English forces employed artillery to bombard the walls of Landrecies, attempting to create openings for an assault. Despite their numerical superiority and the use of cannons, the attackers faced fierce resistance from du Bellay's troops, who utilized the town's fortifications effectively. The defenders executed counterattacks and maintained morale, inflicting significant casualties on the besieging forces. By mid-June, the situation for the attackers became increasingly dire as supplies dwindled and the defenders continued to repel assaults.Ultimately, the siege was lifted in late June 1543 after Gonzaga recognized the untenable position of his forces. The Imperial and English troops withdrew, suffering considerable losses, while the French defenders emerged victorious, having successfully maintained control of Landrecies. The siege highlighted the challenges of siege warfare during this period and underscored the effectiveness of well-prepared defensive positions against larger attacking forces.

Siege of Landrecies (1543)

The war in northern Italy had reached a deadlock by late 1543. The French controlled Turin and a network of fortified towns, while the Imperial-Spanish forces held their own strongholds. In January 1544, Enghien laid siege to Carignano, hoping to lure d'Avalos into a decisive battle. When Imperial reinforcements, including thousands of German landsknechts, arrived, d'Avalos marched from Asti to relieve Carignano. Enghien, expecting this move, positioned his army near Ceresole, choosing open ground that favored his cavalry. At dawn on April 14, both armies formed up on parallel ridges, their visibility partially obscured by the terrain. Skirmishers and arquebusiers clashed for hours before d'Avalos ordered a general advance. On the southern end of the battlefield, the French light cavalry charged into the Imperial left, routing Florentine horsemen and disrupting Italian infantry. Meanwhile, the center erupted into a brutal clash between Imperial landsknechts and French and Swiss infantry. The infantry formations, intermixing pikemen and arquebusiers, resulted in devastating casualties-both sides fired point-blank before colliding in a push of pikes. While the landsknechts and Swiss fought in the center, French heavy cavalry under Boutieres struck the Germans' flank, shattering their formation. The retreating landsknechts were pursued and cut down, with Swiss troops showing no mercy due to past grievances. Seeing the center collapse, the remaining Italian forces withdrew toward Asti. However, on the northern end of the battlefield, the situation was different. Spanish and German infantry overwhelmed the inexperienced French recruits from Gruyeres, and Enghien's repeated cavalry charges failed to break their ranks. Just when it seemed the French left might collapse, news arrived that the Imperial center had been destroyed. This demoralized the Spanish-German infantry, who soon found themselves surrounded by fresh French and Swiss troops returning from the center. They surrendered, but many were slaughtered as the victorious infantry refused to accept quarter. The battle left thousands dead-Imperial casualties ranged from 5,000 to 12,000, while the French lost around 2,000 men. Despite the victory, France failed to capitalize on it. Enghien resumed the siege of Carignano, but soon had to send troops north to defend against an invasion by Charles V. Without sufficient forces, the French failed to take Milan, and the broader war continued with little territorial change.

Battle of Ceresole

Following the French victory at Ceresole in April 1544, the war in northern Italy remained unresolved. While the Spanish-Imperial army under Alfonso d'Avalos had been routed, the French lacked the strength to press their advantage. At King Francis I's insistence, they turned to besiege Carignano, where Pirro Colonna held out for several weeks before finally surrendering. However, just as it seemed the French might push deeper into Lombardy, the looming threat of an Imperial-English invasion of France forced Francis to withdraw much of his army from Piedmont. With the French offensive now faltering, the Spaniards still held Milan and other key strongholds, preventing any further advances. Seizing the moment, d'Avalos struck back. In early June, Pietro Strozzi, an Italian commander in French service, gathered over 10,000 soldiers at Mirandola and marched toward Milan, hoping to link up with Francois de Bourbon, Count of Enghien. On June 2-4, his forces were intercepted by the Imperial-Spanish army, and in a decisive battle, Strozzi's army was completely destroyed. This crushing defeat shattered French hopes of taking Milan, securing Imperial control over Lombardy and effectively ending the French campaign in Italy. With northern Italy firmly in Imperial hands, the war shifted focus. In May 1544, Emperor Charles V launched an invasion of France. His general, Ferrante Gonzaga, led an army into Luxembourg, capturing territory and advancing toward Commercy and Ligny. Meanwhile, Charles himself joined a second force stationed in the Palatinate. At the same time, Henry VIII of England landed an army of 40,000 men at Calais, under the command of Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Despite early French successes in Italy, the campaign ended in a return to the status quo. Milan remained under Imperial control, and France, now under invasion, had to shift its focus to defending its own borders. The collapse of the French offensive in Lombardy marked yet another failed attempt to wrest control of Italy from Habsburg rule.

Battle of Serravalle

The Siege of Saint-Dizier commenced in the summer of 1544 during the Italian War of 1542–1546, as the Imperial army under Emperor Charles V targeted the French city of Saint-Dizier at the outset of its campaign into Champagne. The French garrison, consisting of approximately 2,000 soldiers commanded by the Count of Sancerre and Lord of Lalande, faced a significantly larger Imperial force, which contemporary accounts estimate at around 100,000 troops. Charles V arrived on 13 July with a contingent of 14,100 men, including 10,000 infantry, 2,300 cavalry, and 1,600 sappers. The siege was marked by a notable incident on 14 July when René of Châlon, Prince of Orange, was mortally wounded by a shot from the defenders and died the following day, with Charles V at his side.On 23 July, the Imperial forces overran French outposts near the besieged town, inflicting considerable losses on the French. Despite this, a French army led by Henry, Dauphin of France, maintained a position at Jalons, between Épernay and Chalons, observing the siege. The siege continued until 17 August, when the town ultimately surrendered to the Imperial forces. Following the fall of Saint-Dizier, Charles V chose not to engage the Dauphin's army and instead advanced towards Soissons, which he reached by 12 September.

Siege of Saint-Dizier

The Siege of Montreuil from July 10 to September 25, 1544, saw French forces successfully defend the town against an English siege. The French victory was crucial in maintaining control over this strategic location and thwarting English advances during the Italian War of 1542-1546.

Siege of Montreuil

As the Italian War of 1542-1546 raged on, King Henry VIII of England turned his attention to France, motivated by its support for Scotland, England's long-time enemy. In 1543, Henry allied with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, setting the stage for a new invasion of France. In early 1544, a large English army departed from the Pale of Calais, eventually splitting into two forces. One of these, led by Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, marched along the coast and laid siege to Boulogne on July 19. The town was strategically valuable - a heavily fortified French stronghold overlooking the English Channel. Henry himself arrived to oversee the siege in August, bringing additional artillery to pound the city's defenses. The lower town, lightly fortified, quickly fell to English bombardment. By September, the upper town had also been breached, but the central castle continued to resist. The French garrison's firepower made a direct assault impossible, so the English resorted to tunneling beneath the walls. On September 13, the exhausted French defenders surrendered, and Boulogne fell into English hands. However, Henry's fortunes soon shifted. Charles V unexpectedly made a separate peace with France, leaving England isolated. The French retaliated swiftly. With the English vulnerable, King Francis I of France ordered his son, the Dauphin Henry, to reclaim Boulogne. French forces moved on Montreuil, forcing the Duke of Norfolk to lift his siege there. At the end of September 1544, Henry VIII returned to England, leaving Norfolk and Suffolk in charge of Boulogne's defense. However, the two dukes quickly abandoned much of their force, leaving only 4,000 men in Boulogne and retreating to Calais. The French, now unopposed, launched a massive assault on October 9. At one point, they nearly broke through, but discipline collapsed as soldiers began looting instead of pressing the attack, allowing the English to push them back. Despite repeated French attempts, Boulogne remained in English hands. Over the following years, neither side had the strength for a decisive confrontation. England, expecting a French invasion that never came, perted much of its military focus to Scotland. Meanwhile, France repeatedly failed to retake Boulogne, leaving the conflict in a stalemate. Eventually, in 1550, under Henry VIII's successor Edward VI, England agreed to return Boulogne to France in exchange for financial compensation, formally ending the occupation.

Sieges of Boulogne (1544–1546)

The naval Battle of the Solent occurred on 18 and 19 July 1545, involving the fleets of Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England in the Solent, situated between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The French fleet, comprising over 200 ships and approximately 30,000 soldiers, faced the English forces, which consisted of about 80 ships and 12,000 soldiers. The French expedition had already suffered setbacks, including the destruction of their flagship Carraquon on 6 July due to an accidental fire and the grounding of La Maistresse, which was subsequently repaired before the fleet crossed the Channel and landed troops on the Isle of Wight.On 18 July, the English fleet, emerging from Portsmouth, engaged the French at long range, resulting in minimal damage to either side. The following day, calm weather allowed the French galleys to maneuver against the stationary English vessels. As evening approached, a breeze picked up, and the English flagship, Mary Rose, commanded by Vice Admiral George Carew, advanced but foundered and sank, leading to the loss of nearly all her crew, with only 35 to 40 survivors. The cause of the sinking remains uncertain, though it was speculated that the crew had failed to close the lower gunports after firing, allowing water to flood the ship. Despite the loss, Admiral John Dudley, Viscount Lisle, utilized the tides and currents to reposition his fleet and disrupt the formation of the larger French ships.The French invasion of the Isle of Wight was ultimately repelled, with heavy casualties on both sides during subsequent engagements. On 22 July, Admiral Claude d'Annebault, facing supply issues and illness among his crew, abandoned the invasion and recalled his troops. The following day, a small contingent of French troops attempted to land near Seaford but were repelled by local militia, leading to d'Annebault's return to France.

Battle of the Solent

The Battle of Bonchurch occurred in late July 1545 on the Isle of Wight, during the French invasion aimed at England amidst the Italian War of 1542–1546. The French forces, numbering approximately 500 regular soldiers under the command of Le Seigneur de Tais, landed unopposed at Bonchurch on 21 July. In response, local English militiamen, with estimates of their numbers ranging from 300 to 2,800, gathered under Captain Robert Fyssher at St. Boniface Down, prepared to confront the advancing French troops. The French aimed to advance inland, potentially to burn local settlements and establish a foothold on the island, which was strategically important due to its proximity to Dunnose Point, a safe anchorage with a fresh water source.The battle likely commenced at dawn and continued until midday, with the English forces taking a defensive position among the cliffs and woods. Initial French assaults were repelled, but Le Seigneur de Tais regrouped his troops for a second attack in a fighting formation. Accounts suggest that local women participated by shooting arrows at the French. Despite heavy casualties on both sides, the English line eventually broke, leading to a rout of the militia. Captain Fyssher reportedly called for a horse to escape, as he was unable to flee on foot, and he was not seen again, indicating he may have been killed or captured. While some sources claim a French victory, the majority assert that the English successfully halted the French advance.Following the battle, both sides suffered significant casualties, and skirmishes continued in the area. The English victory at Bonchurch, while notable, had limited impact on the broader conflict, as it involved only a fraction of the forces engaged in the war. The French had hoped to use the Isle of Wight as a base for further operations against England, but their failure to secure the island ultimately contributed to their withdrawal from the region.

Battle of Bonchurch

The Siege of Mirandola commenced in 1551, initiated by Pope Julius III against the city-state of Mirandola, which had allied with France during the Italian Wars. The papal forces, commanded by Generals Camillo Orsini and Alessandro Vitelleschi, along with the pope's nephew, Giovanni Battista del Monte, besieged the fortified city. The siege was marked by internal rivalries among the commanders, which hindered effective military operations. Unlike the previous siege in 1511, the ditches surrounding the city did not freeze, allowing for frequent sorties by the defenders, which disrupted communication between the four forts established by the besieging forces.Throughout the spring of 1551, the siege continued without significant progress as the papal army awaited reinforcements in the form of Landsknechts from Emperor Charles V in Germany. The situation deteriorated further when, in March 1552, a raid by Mirandolese forces resulted in the death of Giovanni Battista del Monte while he was hunting. This event significantly impacted the morale and command structure of the besieging forces.Following the death of his nephew, Pope Julius III communicated to Emperor Charles V his intention to abandon the siege, recognizing the futility of the campaign amid the ongoing internal discord and the lack of decisive military support. The prolonged siege ultimately failed to achieve its objectives, reflecting the complexities of military alliances and the challenges of siege warfare during this period.

Siege of Mirandola (1551)

The Battle of Ponza took place on 7 August 1552 near the Italian island of Ponza, involving a Franco-Ottoman fleet led by the corsair Dragut and a Spanish-Genoese fleet commanded by Andrea Doria. The Ottoman fleet comprised approximately 100 galleys, dispatched by Suleiman the Magnificent to the Western Mediterranean amid the conflict between Henry II of France and Charles V of Spain. Accompanying the Ottomans were three French galleys under Gabriel de Luetz d'Aramon. The Spanish-Genoese fleet, consisting of 39 galleys, was tasked with transporting supplies and troops from Ostia to Naples, where Viceroy Pedro de Toledo was preparing for potential attacks.As Doria and his fleet navigated between the islands of Ponza and Terracina, they were ambushed by Dragut, who had positioned his forces strategically. Despite being outnumbered, Doria and his second-in-command, Juan de Mendoza, attempted to evade the attack and retreated towards Sardinia. However, Dragut's forces managed to capture seven of Doria's galleys, which were carrying troops. The Spanish-Genoese fleet faced significant losses, while the Ottoman fleet's successful ambush allowed them to maintain control over the region.Following the battle, the Franco-Ottoman fleet entered Majorca on 13 August 1552. The victory facilitated Ottoman raids along the coasts of Sicily, Sardinia, and Italy for the subsequent three years. The Ottoman fleet later wintered in Chios, preparing for further naval operations, including a planned invasion of Corsica in 1553. The conflict continued to affect naval engagements in the Mediterranean, with Giovanni Andrea Doria, the nephew of Andrea Doria, later leading an unsuccessful attempt against Dragut at the Battle of Djerba in 1560.

Battle of Ponza (1552)

By 1552, the balance of power in Europe had shifted. The Augsburg Interim, Charles V's attempt to restore religious unity in the Holy Roman Empire, collapsed as Protestant princes turned to Henry II of France for support. Their alliance, sealed in the Treaty of Chambord, allowed Henry to seize the Three Bishoprics-Metz, Toul, and Verdun-bringing them under French control. Unwilling to accept this loss, Charles V launched a massive siege of Metz, determined to retake the city. On October 19, 1552, his Imperial army surrounded the fortress, facing a well-prepared French garrison commanded by Francis, Duke of Guise. Over the following months, the city's medieval walls suffered relentless cannon fire, but Guise's troops held firm, repelling assaults and maintaining their defenses. The real enemy, however, was disease and winter. As the siege dragged on, Charles' forces suffered devastating outbreaks of typhus, dysentery, and scurvy. By January 2, 1553, the once-mighty Imperial army lay in ruins, crippled by starvation and sickness. Charles, unable to breach Metz's defenses, was forced to retreat, leaving behind his wounded and dying. Metz remained under French control, a status later formalized by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The siege was one of Charles V's most humiliating defeats, marking the beginning of the decline of Habsburg dominance in Europe.

Siege of Metz

The Siege of Thérouanne from April 11 to June 20, 1553, saw Imperial forces besiege and capture the city from the French. The victory was significant in weakening French defenses in the region and bolstering Imperial control during the Italian War of 1551-1559.

Siege of Thérouanne

The Battle of Marciano, also known as the Battle of Scannagallo, took place on August 2, 1554, near Arezzo, Tuscany, during the Italian War of 1551. The conflict was a decisive engagement between the forces of the Republic of Siena, commanded by Piero Strozzi, and the Florentine-Imperial army led by Gian Giacomo Medici, known as Il Medeghino. Strozzi's army consisted of approximately 14,000 infantry, including 3,000 Landsknechts, 3,000 Grisons, and 5,000 Italian infantry, along with around 1,000 cavalry and five cannons. In contrast, Medici's forces numbered about 12,000, comprising 2,000 Spanish veterans, 4,000 German Landsknechts, and 3,000 Roman infantry, supported by 20 cannons and 1,200 light cavalry.The battle commenced after Strozzi attempted to retreat towards Lucignano on the night of August 1, but was forced to engage when his movement was intercepted. The Sienese positioned their troops on a slight hill overlooking the Scannagallo creek, while Medici deployed his forces in a three-wing formation. The initial clash saw Medici's cavalry successfully rout the French-Sienese cavalry, leading to a chaotic melee as Strozzi's German infantry charged down the hill. However, the Sienese attack faltered under the fire from Imperial artillery, and panic spread among the German and Swiss troops. Medici capitalized on this disarray, launching a counterattack that culminated in a rout of the Sienese forces, with heavy casualties on their side.The battle lasted approximately two hours, resulting in significant losses for the Sienese, with estimates of 4,000 dead and an equal number wounded or captured. Strozzi was wounded multiple times but managed to escape. The defeat at Marciano marked a critical turning point in the conflict, leading to the eventual fall of Siena and its incorporation into the Duchy of Florence.

Battle of Marciano

In August 1554, the village of Renty, held by Spanish Imperial troops, came under attack as the French, led by King Henry II, sought to weaken Emperor Charles V's hold on the region. On August 13, the French artillery opened fire on Renty's castle, but Charles V initially chose to observe rather than engage. Eventually, he ordered an Imperial counterattack, sending his light cavalry, commanded by the Duke of Savoy and Count Volrad de Schwartzemberg, to strike the French flank. They successfully drove back the French harquebusiers and their gendarmes, seizing control of the Bois Guillaume wood, a critical position. French commanders Gaspard de Saulx and Francis, Duke of Guise, quickly rallied their troops. Meanwhile, Gaspard II de Coligny, Admiral of France, personally led 1,000 men into the wood. Fierce, close-quarters combat ensued, but Coligny's forces ultimately recaptured the position. With the wood secured, Saulx launched a cavalry charge, overwhelming the Imperialists, while Guise provided delayed but decisive support. The French victory was complete, with the enemy losing nearly 2,000 men and their artillery. However, despite their success, the French abandoned the siege just two days later, on August 15, due to a shortage of ammunition. The army withdrew to Compi&egrave;gne but later resumed its advance, forcing Charles V to retreat. While the battle bolstered French morale, its political consequences were mixed. Charles V, weakened by continued setbacks, was soon forced to sign the Treaty of Vaucelles (1556) and abdicated two years later. Meanwhile, France retained Metz, Toul, and Verdun, securing its territorial gains.

Battle of Renty

The Siege of Civitella from April 20 to May 15, 1557, saw Spanish forces successfully defend the city against a French siege. The Spanish victory was crucial in maintaining control over central Italy and thwarting French advances during the Italian War of 1551-1559.

Siege of Civitella

The Battle of Saint-Quentin took place on 10 August 1557, the Feast Day of St. Lawrence, during the Italian Wars. The battle saw the Spanish, under Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, face off against the French, led by Anne de Montmorency, as part of the ongoing conflict between the Habsburgs and France. The Spanish forces, supported by English allies, had placed the strategic town of Saint-Quentin under siege. In response, Montmorency led a French force of about 26,000 men in an attempt to relieve the city. The French plan involved sneaking reinforcements into Saint-Quentin through the surrounding marshes. However, logistical delays and poor coordination exposed their forces to a devastating Spanish counterattack. Montmorency&rsquo;s troops were overwhelmed by a Spanish army twice their size. The French were decisively defeated, and Montmorency himself was captured. During the chaotic battle, the collegiate church of Saint-Quentin was severely damaged by fire. Despite their victory, Philip II of Spain, shaken by the slaughter he witnessed on the battlefield, chose not to press his advantage by advancing deeper into French territory. Instead, he withdrew his forces to the Spanish Netherlands, where he had served as governor since 1555. The victory at Saint-Quentin marked a turning point in the conflict. It was followed by another Habsburg triumph at the Battle of Gravelines in 1558. The war ultimately ended with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambr&eacute;sis in 1559, which confirmed Habsburg dominance in Italy and ceded key territories to Spain, including the French claim to Milan. The peace marked the end of France's ambitions in Italy and brought a close to decades of warfare between the two powers.

Battle of St. Quentin (1557)

The French siege of Calais commenced on 1 January 1558, as part of the Italian War of 1551–1559, with the objective of reclaiming the city that had been under English control since 1347. The siege was initiated by Francis, Duke of Guise, who commanded an army of approximately 30,000 troops assembled in secrecy to avoid detection by English forces. The French vanguard quickly captured the surrounding areas, including Sangatte, Fréthun, and Nielles, while artillery units began operations against Fort Risban on 2 January. By 3 January, the French artillery had moved to Fort Nieulay at Rysbank, effectively establishing a strong position against the English defenses.The English garrison, led by Thomas Wentworth, 2nd Baron Wentworth, faced overwhelming pressure from the French forces. On 7 January, after a rapid and decisive assault, Wentworth surrendered the keys to Calais, resulting in the French capturing not only the city but also significant supplies, including food for three months and nearly 300 cannons. Following the fall of Calais, the English defenses at Guînes and Hames also succumbed to French advances. Henry II of France arrived in Calais on 23 January, marking the end of English rule in the city and concluding over two centuries of conflict between England and France.The French administration swiftly reorganized the region, establishing new borders, dividing farmland, and reconstructing local infrastructure. The English inhabitants were granted safe passage back to England, and the loss of Calais was met with shock in England, particularly by Queen Mary I, who reportedly expressed her sorrow over the loss on her deathbed. The siege not only marked a significant territorial shift but also symbolized the culmination of longstanding hostilities between the two nations.

Siege of Calais (1558)

The Siege of Thionville commenced on 17 April 1558, during the Italian War of 1551–59, when French forces under Francis, Duke of Guise, aimed to capture the strategically significant town held by the Spanish. The French army, initially led by the seigneur de Vieilleville, began by establishing siegeworks to cut off supplies to the town, which was defended by approximately 3,000 Spanish troops commanded by Jean Carrebe. By 26 April, reinforcements had arrived, bringing the French forces to an estimated total of 10,000 to 14,000 men, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The besieging forces set up artillery, including twelve emperor-calibre cannons and six grand culverins, to bombard the town's defenses.As the siege progressed, the French mounted a significant assault on the town's fortifications, which were severely damaged by their artillery. On 21 June, a critical moment occurred when Piero Strozzi, a key commander, was killed by a musket shot, leading to Vieilleville reassuming command. The French forces then shifted their attack strategy, moving artillery closer to the walls and launching a renewed assault. After a fierce battle, French troops managed to breach the defenses, leading to a chaotic fight within the town. Despite initial resistance, a second assault succeeded, and the French forces entered Thionville, raising cries of victory.Following the capture, Guise demanded the unconditional surrender of the town from Carrebe, threatening severe consequences if the defenders did not comply. Carrebe ultimately surrendered on 23 June, allowing the Spanish garrison and civilians to leave without military honors. The French took possession of Thionville, but plans to demolish the town were vetoed by Guise due to the fierce defense it had mounted. Although the town was briefly under French control, the subsequent Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 returned Thionville to Spanish rule, despite the town's significant damage during the siege and occupation.

Siege of Thionville (1558)

The Battle of Gravelines took place on 13 July 1558 near Calais, France, during the ongoing conflict between France and Spain. Spanish forces, commanded by Lamoral, Count of Egmont, faced the French army led by Marshal Paul de Thermes. The French contingent consisted of approximately 12,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, equipped with significant artillery. Following the earlier Spanish victory at the Battle of St. Quentin, Henry II of France sought to retaliate by assembling a new army in Picardy, which he entrusted to Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers. As de Thermes advanced, he crossed the river Aa and aimed to capture Dunkirk and Nieuwpoort, inadvertently positioning himself for confrontation with the Spanish forces, which numbered around 15,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry.As the battle commenced, de Thermes deployed his troops on the left bank of the river, forming a double line with cavalry and artillery in the front and infantry behind. Egmont, observing the French positions, arranged his forces in a crescent shape, placing light cavalry on the flanks and the main body of Spanish, German, and Flemish troops in the center. The engagement began with artillery fire from the French, but the Spanish arquebusiers, better trained and equipped, targeted the French cavalry effectively. The ensuing chaos allowed Egmont to launch a decisive cavalry charge against the French center. Concurrently, Biscay and English ships under Admiral Edward Clinton bombarded the French rear, inflicting heavy casualties and further disorienting the French forces.The battle concluded with a catastrophic outcome for the French, as only about 1,500 men managed to escape, while the majority were either killed or captured, including Marshal de Thermes himself. The defeat at Gravelines compounded the losses suffered at St. Quentin, significantly weakening French military efforts and leading to a retreat towards the border.

Battle of Gravelines (1558)

On 1 or 2 August 1537, near the village of Montemurlo in Tuscany, Duke Cosimo I of Florence engaged a hastily assembled army opposing Medici rule. The rebel forces, composed of various factions seeking to restore the Republic of Florence, faced a well-prepared contingent loyal to Cosimo. The exact number of troops involved remains uncertain, but Cosimo's forces were significantly organized and equipped compared to the disjointed opposition. The battle unfolded with intense fighting, resulting in a decisive victory for Cosimo's troops.Following the confrontation, Cosimo I enacted severe reprisals against the captured rebels, which included executions and other forms of punishment aimed at quelling dissent. This brutal response effectively dismantled organized resistance to Medici authority in Florence, consolidating Cosimo's power and establishing his rule over the city. The aftermath of the battle marked a turning point in the political landscape of Florence, as the Medici family solidified their control.On 30 September 1537, the victory at Montemurlo prompted Emperor Charles V to formally recognize Cosimo I as the Duke of Florence, further legitimizing his authority and signaling the end of significant opposition to Medici governance. This recognition was a crucial step in the establishment of a stable regime under Cosimo, who would go on to play a pivotal role in the history of Florence and the broader Italian states.

Battle of Montemurlo

The Battle of Rapallo occurred on 2 May 1495, during the First Italian War, involving a naval confrontation between the Republic of Genoa and France. The French fleet, commanded by Louis de Miolans, comprised seven galleys, two galleons, and two fuste, while the Genoese squadron, led by Francesco Spinola, consisted of eight galleys, a carrack, and two xebecs, carrying approximately six hundred infantrymen. The battle commenced at dawn when the Genoese launched a surprise attack on the French fleet, which was moored in Rapallo, a location that had housed a French garrison since the previous year. At the time of the assault, only two of the French galleys were fully manned, as the remainder had sent part of their crews to reinforce the land garrison, misled by false rumors that the main threat would come from land forces.Taking advantage of the element of surprise, the Genoese successfully captured the entire French fleet. Following this naval victory, they landed troops under the command of Gian Ludovico Fieschi and Giovanni Adorno, who, with the support of a local uprising, recaptured Rapallo and compelled the French garrison to surrender. The defeat of the French fleet had significant repercussions, leading to the capture of a convoy of twelve unescorted French vessels shortly thereafter. These ships were transporting war booty and prisoners taken during Charles VIII’s campaign in the Kingdom of Naples, including three hundred women abducted in Campania. The Genoese seized the booty, which was later partially allocated to fund the construction of the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata del Vastato, while the bronze doors of Castel Nuovo were returned to the Neapolitans, bearing marks of battle damage.The loss of the French fleet's logistical support in the Tyrrhenian Sea significantly influenced Charles VIII's strategic decisions, ultimately accelerating his withdrawal from Naples and return to France. The battle underscored the shifting dynamics of power in the region during the Italian Wars, highlighting the effectiveness of surprise tactics and local support in naval engagements.

Battle of Rapallo (1495)

In 1495, during the Italian War of 1494&ndash;1495, King Charles VIII of France led an invasion into Italy aiming to claim the Kingdom of Naples. As part of this campaign, the French forces targeted the fortified town of Monte San Giovanni Campano, a strategic border fortification of Naples renowned for its formidable medieval castle. The castle, constructed in the 11th century, was considered impregnable, having withstood sieges lasting up to seven years. However, the advent of gunpowder artillery changed the dynamics of siege warfare. The French army, equipped with portable field artillery, bombarded the castle for eight hours, breaching its thick walls&mdash;a feat unprecedented at the time. Following the breach, French troops entered the town and massacred approximately 700 inhabitants who were unable to escape. The fall of Monte San Giovanni Campano demonstrated the devastating effectiveness of gunpowder artillery against traditional fortifications, signaling a shift in military tactics and the decline of medieval castle defenses. The destruction of the castle and the slaughter of its inhabitants also served as a grim warning to other Neapolitan territories, contributing to the rapid French advance through the region.

Siege of Monte San Giovanni Campano

The Battle of Casaloldo, fought on May 10, 1509, was a significant engagement during the War of the League of Cambrai. The conflict arose from the expansionist ambitions of the Gonzaga family, rulers of the Marquisate of Mantua, who sought to extend their territories at the expense of neighboring states, including the Republic of Venice. On December 8, 1508, Francesco II Gonzaga, the Marquess of Mantua, joined the League of Cambrai, an alliance formed to counter Venetian power. In early May 1509, with the main Venetian army positioned in Pontevico, Francesco II assembled a substantial force in Canneto sull'Oglio, near the border with Venetian territory. His army comprised approximately 5,000 infantrymen, 200 knights, and 200 cavalrymen, along with crossbowmen on horseback. Due to the limited resources of the Marquisate, maintaining such a large force, especially the cavalry, posed logistical challenges. The Venetians, aware of the Mantuan troop movements, anticipated potential raids on their rear positions as their forces advanced towards Gera d'Adda to confront the French army. On the night of May 9, Alessio Beccaguto, commander of the Mantuan crossbowmen, led a contingent of around 350 knights and 600 infantrymen, supported by two iron and two bronze cannons, to besiege the town of Casaloldo. The town's garrison, consisting of 200 Venetian soldiers, held firm and dispatched a messenger to Federico Contarini, the Venetian provveditore (military administrator) of Asola, informing him of the siege. In response, Contarini ordered Matteo dal Borgo and Angelo Avogadro da Brozzo to mobilize approximately 300 local militia, armed with spears, glaives, and guisarmes, along with 170 infantrymen, to reinforce Casaloldo. The two forces clashed near Castelnuovo. The battle was intense, with the Mantuan troops unprepared for the determination and resilience of the Venetian forces, which included many local militia members. During the engagement, Beccaguto was injured and fell into the Tartaro River. Witnessing their commander's injury and the mounting casualties, the Mantuan soldiers retreated to Canneto. The Venetians captured many of the wounded knights and soldiers. In the aftermath, the Venetians suffered light losses, while the Mantuans incurred 60 fatalities, 100 wounded, and 80 captured soldiers, along with the loss of 50 horses and four cannons. The prisoners were taken to Asola. A few days later, Beccaguto fell into another Venetian ambush near Castiglione delle Stiviere, resulting in 24 Mantuan casualties and 80 more prisoners. The Battle of Casaloldo exemplified the volatile nature of the Italian Wars, where shifting alliances and territorial ambitions led to frequent and fierce confrontations.

Battle of Casaloldo

The Battle of the Citadel of Vicenza occurred on 10 June 1513 during the Italian Wars, primarily involving the forces of the Republic of Venice and the Duchy of Milan. The Venetian army, commanded by Bartolomeo d'Alviano, consisted of approximately 10,000 troops, including infantry and cavalry. The Milanese forces, led by Francesco Sforza, numbered around 8,000 soldiers. The battle was fought near the fortified citadel of Vicenza, a strategic location that both sides sought to control due to its importance in the region.As the battle commenced, the Venetian forces launched an assault on the citadel, which was heavily defended by Sforza's troops. The engagement was marked by intense fighting, with both sides employing artillery and infantry tactics. The Venetian forces attempted to breach the walls of the citadel, but faced fierce resistance from the Milanese defenders. Despite their numerical advantage, the Venetians struggled to gain a decisive upper hand, leading to a protracted conflict characterized by close-quarters combat and significant casualties on both sides.Ultimately, the battle concluded without a clear victor, as both armies suffered heavy losses. The Venetians reported around 1,500 casualties, while the Milanese faced similar numbers. The inability of either side to secure a definitive victory resulted in a stalemate, with the citadel remaining under Milanese control for the time being. The battle exemplified the ongoing power struggles in Northern Italy during the Italian Wars, highlighting the complexities of military engagements in the region.

Battle of the citadel of Vicenza

Although Henry VIII had preferred to attack Boulogne, discussions on 4 September 1513 led the allies to focus on Tournai instead. As Maximilian I and Henry advanced, Henry made a grand entrance into Lille on 10 September, where he was entertained at the court of Margaret of Savoy. That night, the English king played various musical instruments and danced enthusiastically, impressing those present. Meanwhile, back in England, Henry faced a serious challenge from Scotland, which had entered the war on France's side. The Battle of Flodden on 9 September ended in disaster for the Scots, with King James IV of Scotland killed in battle. Catherine of Aragon, acting as regent in Henry's absence, sent the fallen king's blood-stained coat and gauntlets to her husband, suggesting he use them as a battle standard. The English army arrived at Tournai on 10 September, and Henry and Maximilian personally visited on 13 September. The city's defenders took desperate measures, demolishing houses near their gates on 11 September and burning their suburbs two days later to prevent the enemy from using them as cover. By 15 September, the townspeople, under increasing pressure, were ordered to repair the city's walls. At the same time, the town council debated whether to declare for France or the Holy Roman Empire. English forces, led by Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, managed to capture one of Tournai's gatehouses, removing statues as trophies. Negotiations between the English and the city's leadership followed, culminating in surrender on 23 September 1513.

Siege of Tournai (1513)

In October 1524, King Francis I of France led an army of approximately 26,200 troops into Lombardy and laid siege to Pavia, a key stronghold in Northern Italy. The French forces, composed of French infantry, Swiss mercenaries, German Landsknechts, and Italian Black Bands, deployed artillery to breach the city's defenses. Despite continuous bombardment, the Imperial garrison under Antonio de Leyva withstood the assault, extending the siege into winter. As the siege dragged on, French resources and morale suffered. The prolonged stalemate ended when an Imperial relief force arrived in February 1525, leading to a decisive confrontation outside the city.

Siege of Pavia

The Italian Wars (1494-1559 CE) were a series of conflicts involving major European powers, including France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Papal States, over control of the Italian Peninsula. Sparked by French King Charles VIII's invasion of Italy, the wars saw shifting alliances and intense battles, as rulers sought to exploit Italy's wealth and strategic importance. Key events included the Sack of Rome (1527), the Battle of Pavia (1525), and the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), which ended the wars with Spain emerging dominant over much of Italy. These conflicts marked the decline of Italy's Renaissance-era autonomy and the rise of foreign domination. The Italian Wars began after decades of relative stability in Italy, established by the 1454 Treaty of Lodi and the Italic League, which promoted peace and economic growth. This stability was largely maintained by Lorenzo de' Medici, who worked to keep foreign powers like France and the Holy Roman Empire out of Italian politics. However, Lorenzo's death in 1492 weakened the League, leaving Italy vulnerable to outside ambitions. France's interest in Italy stemmed from its inheritance of the Angevin claim to Naples in 1481, when Louis XI acquired the County of Provence. His successor, Charles VIII, formally annexed Provence in 1486, securing Mediterranean access and enabling his plans for expansion. Through treaties like the Peace of Etaples (1492) with England and the Treaty of Barcelona (1493) with the Holy Roman Empire, Charles neutralized potential opposition. In 1494, Ludovico Sforza, regent of Milan, invited Charles to invade Italy to claim Naples, motivated by a power struggle with his nephew's wife, Isabella of Aragon. With Naples positioned as a potential base for a crusade against the Ottomans, Charles invaded Italy in September 1494, initiating the First Italian War.